Who are the Incas. Who are the Incas and where did they live? The Inca Empire: Capital, Culture, History. Creation of the Great Inca Empire

• Karanke. The capital of the province with the inns of the local governor, as well as the courts of the Inca, where permanent military garrisons with commanders were located.

• Otavalo. Of secondary importance.

• Kooschi. Of secondary importance.

• Muliambato. Courtyards and warehouses are of secondary importance. Submitted to the ruler in Latakunga.
• Ambato.

• Urine. Large and numerous buildings.

• Riobamba, in the province of Puruaes.

• Kyambi.
• Teokajas. Small inns.

• Tikisambi. Main inns.

• Chan-Chan, in the Chimu Valley.

• Chumbo, province. Main inns. Served by the Incas and the rulers.

• Tumbes, inns and large warehouses, with a steward, a military leader, soldiers and mitimai.

• Guayaquil had a warehouse for caciques and villages.

• Tambo Blanco. Inns.

• Solana Valley. Warehouses.

• Poechos, or Maikavilka, is a valley with royal palaces, large and numerous inns and warehouses.

• Chimu, a valley with large inns and pleasure houses of the Incas.

• Motupe, a valley with inns and numerous warehouses.

• Hayanka, a valley with large Inca inns and warehouses, in which their lords stayed.

• Guanyape Valley. Warehouses and inns.

• Santa, valley. Large inns and many warehouses.

• Guambacho Valley. Inns.

• Chilka, valley. It had Inca inns and warehouses to provide inspection visits to the provinces of the kingdom.

• Chincha, province. In the valley, an Inca ruler was installed and there were luxurious inns for kings, many warehouses where food and military equipment were stored.

• Ica, a valley with palaces and warehouses.

• Nazca, a valley with large buildings and many warehouses.

• Chachapoyas, province. Large Inca inns and warehouses.

• Guancabamba, capital of the province.

• Bombon (Pumpu), the capital of the province.

• Konchukos, province. To get enough provisions for the soldiers and servants of the Inca, every 4 leagues there were inns and warehouses, filled with everything that was available in these parts.

• Guaras, a province of inns, a large fortress, or the remains of an ancient structure similar to a city block.

• Tarama. Large Inca inns and warehouses.

• Akos, a village in the province of Guamanga. Inns and warehouses.

• Pike, inn.
• Parko, inns.

• Pukara, a settlement with Inca palaces and the Temple of the Sun; and many provinces came here with the usual tribute, to present it to the governor, who was authorized to watch over the warehouses and collect this tribute.

• Asangaro, inn.

• Guamanga, city. Large inns.

• Wilkas. Geographical center of the Empire. The provincial capital with main inns and warehouses. Inca Yupanqui ordered to build these inns, and his successors improved the buildings: Inca Tupac Yupanqui built palaces for himself and many warehouses, of which there were more than 700 for storing weapons, fine clothes and maize. More than 40 thousand Indians served these inns.

• Soras and Lucanas, provinces. Inca residences, inns and common warehouses.

• Uramarka. Inns with mitimai.

• Andavailas, province. There were inns here before the arrival of the Incas.

• Apurimac, a hinged bridge over the river. There were inns nearby.

• Curaguasi, inn.

• Limatambo, inn.

• Hakihaguana, the valley had opulent and splendid bedchambers for the entertainment of the Inca rulers.

• Cuzco. Capital of the empire. In and around this city there were the main inns with the warehouses of the Inca kings, in which those who inherited the possession celebrated their holidays.

• Pukamarca, an inn where mamakons and royal concubines lived, spinning and weaving exquisite clothes.
• Atun Kancha, is similar to the previous one.
• Kasana, is similar to the previous one.

• Yukai, valley with royal residence and inns.

• Kispikanche, inns on Kolyasuyu road.

• Urkos, inns.

• Kanches, inns.

• Chaca, or Atuncana, is the provincial capital with large inns in the province of Kanas, built on the orders of Tupac Inca Yupanqui.

• Ayyavire, the provincial capital with palaces and many tribute warehouses. Built and inhabited by mitimayas by order of the Inca Yupanqui.

• Khatunkolya. The provincial capital of Collao with its main inns and warehouses. Before the Incas, it was the capital of the ruler of Sapana.

• Chuquito, the capital of the province with large inns dating back to the pre-Incas. They came under the rule of the latter, presumably under Viracoch Inca.

• Guaki, inns.

• Tiwanaku, a small settlement with main inns. Manco Capac II, the son of Vain Capac, was born here.

• Chukiapo Valley. The eponymous capital of the province with the main inns.

• Paria. The provincial capital with main inns and warehouses.

• Chile, province. There were also many large settlements with inns and warehouses.

The Indians called the Inca only the emperor, and the conquistadors used this word to designate the entire tribe, which in the pre-Columbian era, apparently, used the self-name "kapak-kuna" ("great", "glorified").

The landscapes and natural conditions of the former Inca Empire were very diverse. In the mountains between 2150 and 3000 m above sea level. temperate climatic zones are located, favorable for intensive farming. In the southeast, the huge mountain range is divided into two ridges, between which, at an altitude of 3840 m, there is a vast plateau with Lake Titicaca. This and other high plateaus stretching south and east of Bolivia all the way to the northwestern regions of Argentina are called altiplano. These treeless grassy plains are located in a continental climate zone with hot sunny days and cool nights. Many Andean tribes lived on the altiplano. To the southeast of Bolivia, the mountains break off and give way to the boundless breadth of the Argentine pampa.

Pacific coastal strip of Peru, starting at 3 ° S lat. and up to the Maule River in Chile, it is a continuous zone of deserts and semi-deserts. The reason for this is the cold Antarctic Humboldt Current, which cools the air currents going from the sea to the mainland and prevents them from condensing. However, the coastal waters are very rich in plankton and, accordingly, fish, and the fish attract seabirds, whose droppings (guano), which cover the deserted coastal islets, is an extremely valuable fertilizer. The coastal plains, stretching from north to south for 3200 km, do not exceed 80 km in width. Rivers flowing into the ocean cross them approximately every 50 km. In the river valleys, ancient cultures flourished, developed on the basis of irrigated agriculture.

The Incas managed to connect two different zones of Peru, the so-called. Sierra (mountainous) and Costa (coastal), into a single social, economic and cultural space.

The eastern spurs of the Andes are dotted with deep wooded valleys and turbulent rivers. Further to the east, the jungle stretches - the Amazonian selva. The Incas called the hot humid foothills and their inhabitants "yungas". Local Indians put up fierce resistance to the Incas, who were never able to subdue them.

HISTORY

Pre-Incan period.

The Inca culture was formed relatively late. Long before the arrival of the Incas in the historical arena, back in the III millennium BC, sedentary tribes lived on the coast, who were engaged in the manufacture of cotton fabrics and grew maize, pumpkins and beans. The oldest of the great Andean cultures is the Chavin culture (12th – 8th centuries BC - 4th century AD). Its center, the city of Chavin de Huantar, located in the Central Andes, retained its importance even in the Inca era. Later, other cultures developed on the northern coast, among which the early class state of Mochica (c. 1st century BC - 8th century AD) stands out, which created magnificent works of architecture, ceramics and weaving.

On the southern coast, the mysterious Paracas culture (c. 4th century BC - 4th century AD) flourished, famous for its fabrics, undeniably the most skillful in all of pre-Columbian America. Paracas influenced the early Nazca culture, which developed further south, in five oasis valleys. In the basin of Lake Titicaca approx. 8 c. the great culture of Tiahuanaco was formed. The capital and ceremonial center of Tiahuanaco, located at the southeastern end of the lake, is built of hewn stone slabs held together by bronze spikes. Famous Gate The suns are carved out of a huge stone monolith. In the upper part there is a wide bas-relief belt with images of the sun god, which flows in tears in the form of condors and mythological creatures. The motif of the weeping deity can be traced in many Andean and coastal cultures, in particular in the Huari culture, which developed near the present Ayacucho. Apparently, it was from Huari that religious and military expansion proceeded down the Pisco Valley towards the coast. Judging by the spread of the crying god motif, from the 10th to the 13th centuries. the state of Tiahuanaco subjugated most of the peoples of Costa. After the collapse of the empire, local tribal associations, freed from external oppression, created their own state formations. The most significant of them was the state of Chimu-Chimor (14th century - 1463), which fought with the Incas, with the capital Chan-Chan (near the present port of Trujillo). This city with huge stepped pyramids, irrigated gardens and stone-lined pools covered an area of ​​20.7 square meters. km. One of the centers of ceramic production and weaving has developed here. The state of Chimu, which extended its power along the 900-kilometer line of the Peruvian coast, had an extensive network of roads.

Thus, having in the past an ancient and high cultural tradition, the Incas were more likely heirs than the founders of Peruvian culture.

First Inca.

The legendary first Inca Manco Capac founded Cusco around the beginning of the 12th century. The city lies at an altitude of 3416 m above sea level. in a deep valley running from north to south between the two steep ridges of the Andes. According to legend, Manco Capac, at the head of his tribe, came to this valley from the south. At the direction of the sun god, his father, he threw a golden rod at his feet and, when it was swallowed up by the earth (a good sign of its fertility), he founded a city in this place. Historical sources, partially confirmed by archaeological data, indicate that the history of the rise of the Incas, one of the countless Andean tribes, begins in the 12th century, and their ruling dynasty numbers 13 names - from Manco Capac to Atahualpa, killed by the Spaniards in 1533.

Conquest.

The Incas began to expand their possessions from the territories directly adjacent to the valley of Cuzco. By 1350, during the reign of the Rocky Inca, they had conquered all the lands near Lake Titicaca in the south, and the nearby valleys in the east. Soon they moved north and further east and subjugated territories in the upper reaches of the Urubamba River, after which they directed their expansion to the west. Here they faced fierce resistance from the Sora and Rucanian tribes, but emerged victorious from the confrontation. Around 1350, the Incas built a suspension bridge over the deep canyon of the Apurimac River. Previously, it was crossed by three bridges in the southwest, but now the Incas have paved a direct route from Cuzco to Andahuaylas. This bridge, the longest in the empire (45 m), was called by the Incas "huacacaca", the sacred bridge. Conflict with the powerful warlike tribe Chanka, which controlled the Apurimac passage, became inevitable. At the end of the reign of Viracochi (d. 1437), the Chunks made a sudden raid on the lands of the Incas and laid siege to Cuzco. Viracocha fled to the Urubamba Valley, leaving his son Pachacuteca (literally "earth shaker") to defend the capital. The heir brilliantly coped with the task entrusted to him and utterly defeated the enemies.

During the reign of Pachacuteca (1438-1463), the Incas expanded their possessions northward to Lake Junin, and in the south they conquered the entire basin of Lake Titicaca. Pachacute's son Tupac Inca Yupanqui (1471-1493) extended Inca rule to what is now Chile, Bolivia, Argentina and Ecuador. In 1463, the troops of Tupac Inca Yupanqui conquered the state of Chima, and its rulers were taken to Cuzco as hostages.

The last conquests were made by the Emperor Huayna Capac, who came to power in 1493, a year after Columbus reached the New World. He annexed the Chachapoyas empire in Northern Peru, on the right bank of the Marañon River in its upper reaches, subjugated the warlike tribes of the island of Puna near Ecuador and the adjacent coast in the area of ​​present-day Guayaquil, and in 1525 the northern border of the empire reached the Ancasmayo River, where the border between Ecuador now lies. and Colombia.

INCA EMPIRE AND CULTURE

Language.

Quechua, the language of the Incas, has a very distant relationship with the Aymara language, which was spoken by the Indians who lived near Lake Titicaca. It is not known what language the Incas spoke in before Pachacutec in 1438 elevated Quechua to the rank of the state language. Thanks to the policy of conquest and resettlement, Quechua spread throughout the empire, and to this day it is spoken by most of the Peruvian Indians.

Agriculture.

Initially, the population of the Inca state consisted mostly of farmers, who, if necessary, took up arms. Their daily life followed the agricultural cycle, and under the guidance of experts, they turned the empire into an important center for plant cultivation. More than half of all foods currently consumed in the world come from the Andes. Among them - over 20 varieties of corn and 240 varieties of potatoes, "kamote" (sweet potatoes), squash and pumpkin, various types of beans, cassava (from which flour was made), peppers, peanuts and quinoa (wild buckwheat). The most important agricultural crop of the Incas was the potato, capable of withstanding extreme cold and growing at an altitude of 4600 m above sea level. By alternately freezing and thawing the potatoes, the Incas dehydrated them to such an extent that they turned them into a dry powder called chunyo. . Corn (sarah) was grown at an altitude of 4100 m above sea level. and was consumed in different types: cheese on the cob (choklo), dried and lightly toasted (collo), in the form of hominy (mote) and turned into an alcoholic drink (sarayaka, or chicha). To make the latter, women chewed corn grains and spit the pulp into a vat, where the resulting mass, under the influence of saliva enzymes, fermented and secreted alcohol.

In that era, all Peruvian tribes were approximately at the same technological level. The work was carried out jointly. The main tool of the farmer's labor was taklya , a primitive digging stick - a wooden stake with a tip burnt for strength.

Arable land was available, but not in abundance. Rain in the Andes usually falls from December to May, but dry years are not uncommon. Therefore, the Incas irrigated the land using canals, many of which testify to the high level of engineering. To protect soils from erosion, terrace farming was used by the pre-Incan tribes, and the Incas improved this technology.

The Andean peoples practiced mainly sedentary agriculture and rarely resorted to slash-and-burn agriculture, adopted by the Indians of Mexico and Central America, in which areas cleared of forests were sown for 1–2 years and abandoned as soon as the soil was depleted. This is explained by the fact that the Central American Indians did not have natural fertilizers, with the exception of rotten fish and human excrement, while in Peru the farmers of the coast had huge reserves of guano, and in the mountains, manure from llamas (taki) was used for fertilization.

Llamas.

These camelids descended from the wild guanacos, which were domesticated thousands of years before the arrival of the Incas. Llamas endure high-altitude cold and desert heat; they serve as pack animals capable of carrying up to 40 kg of cargo; they give wool for making clothes and meat - it is sometimes dried in the sun, called "cups". Llamas, like camels, tend to empty in one place, so their manure can be easily collected to fertilize the fields. Lamas were instrumental in shaping the settled agricultural cultures of Peru.

Social organization.

Islew.

At the base of the social pyramid of the Inca Empire was a kind of community - the ailyu. It was formed from family clans who lived together in the territory allocated to them, jointly owned land and livestock and shared the harvests among themselves. Almost everyone belonged to one community or another, was born and died in it. Communities were small and large - up to the whole city. The Incas did not know individual land tenure: the land could only belong to the Ailya or, later, to the emperor and, as it were, rented out to a member of the community. Every autumn there was a redistribution of land - allotments increased or decreased depending on the size of the family. All agricultural work in Ailya were made together.

At the age of 20, men were supposed to marry. If a young man himself could not find a match for himself, a wife was selected for him. In the lower social strata, the strictest monogamy was maintained, while representatives of the ruling class practiced polygamy.

Some women had the opportunity to leave the Isle and improve their position. These are the "chosen ones" who, for their beauty or special talents, could be taken to Cuzco or to a provincial center, where they were taught the art of cooking, weaving or religious rituals. Dignitaries often married the "chosen ones" they liked, and some became concubines of the Inca himself.

State of Tahuantinsuyu.

The name of the Inca empire - Tahuantinsuyu - literally means "four connected sides of the world." Four roads left Cusco in different directions, and each, regardless of its length, bore the name of the part of the empire to which it led. Antisuyu included all the lands east of Cuzco - the Eastern Cordillera and the Amazonian selva. From here, the Incas were threatened with raids by tribes that were not pacified by them. Continsuyu united the western lands, including the conquered cities of the Costa - from Chan Chan in the north to Rimac in Central Peru (the location of present-day Lima) and Arequipa in the south. Collazuyu, the largest part of the empire, stretched south of Cuzco, encompassing Bolivia with Lake Titicaca and parts of present-day Chile and Argentina. Chinchasuyu ran north to Rumichaki. Each of these parts of the empire was ruled by an apo, linked by blood ties to the Inca and accountable only to him.

Decimal administrative system.

The social and, accordingly, the economic organization of the Inca society was based, with various regional differences, on a decimal administrative-hierarchical system. The unit of account was a purik - an adult, capable man who has a household and is able to pay taxes. Ten households had their own, so to speak, "foreman" (the Incas called him Pacha Camayoc), a hundred households were headed by Pacha Curaca, a thousand - by a fry (usually the manager big village), ten thousand - the governor of the province (omo-kuraka), and ten provinces made up a "quarter" of the empire and were ruled by the apo mentioned above. Thus, for every 10,000 households, there were 1,331 officials of various ranks.

Inca.

The new emperor was usually elected by a council of members of the royal family. Direct succession to the throne was not always observed. As a rule, the emperor was chosen from the sons of the lawful wife (koya) of the deceased ruler. The Inca had one official wife and countless concubines. So, according to some estimates, Huayna Capac had about five hundred sons alone, who happened to live already under Spanish rule. Inca appointed his offspring, who constituted a special royal ailya, to the most honorable positions. The Inca Empire was a true theocracy, since the emperor was not only the supreme ruler and priest, but also, in the eyes of the common people, a demigod. In this totalitarian state, the emperor had absolute power, limited only by customs and fear of rebellion.

Taxes.

Each purik was obliged to work in part for the state. This compulsory labor service was called mita. Only state dignitaries and priests were exempted from it. Each Ailyu, in addition to its own land allotment, jointly cultivated the field of the Sun and the field of the Inca, giving the crops from these fields, respectively, to the priesthood and the state. Another type of labor service extended to public works - mining and building roads, bridges, temples, fortresses, royal residences. All these works were carried out under the supervision of expert experts. With the help of a nodular letter, the kipu kept an accurate record of the fulfillment of duties by each ailyu. In addition to labor duties, every purik was part of the detachments of rural law enforcement officers and could be called up to war at any time. If he went to war, the community members cultivated his plot of land.

Colonization.

To subjugate and assimilate the conquered peoples, the Incas involved them in a system of labor duties. As soon as the Incas conquered a new territory, they expelled all unreliable from there and instilled in Quechua-speaking. The latter were called "mita-kona" (in the Spanish pronunciation "mitamaes"). Remaining local residents it was not forbidden to observe their customs, wear traditional clothes and speak their native language, but all officials were obliged to know Quechua. Mita-kona was entrusted with military tasks (protection of border fortresses), administrative and economic, and in addition, the colonists had to introduce the conquered peoples to the Inca culture. If the road under construction ran through a completely deserted area, Mita-kona settled in these areas, obliged to supervise the road and bridges and thereby spread the power of the emperor everywhere. The colonists received significant social and economic privileges like the Roman legionaries who served in the outlying provinces. The integration of the conquered peoples into a single cultural and economic space was so deep that up to now 7 million people speak Quechua, the Ailyu tradition is preserved among the Indians, and the influence of Inca culture in folklore, agricultural practice, and psychology is still felt on a vast territory.

Roads, bridges and couriers.

Excellent roads with a well-functioning courier service made it possible to keep a huge territory under unified management. The Incas used the roads laid by their predecessors and themselves built approx. 16,000 km of new roads designed for all weather conditions. Since the pre-Columbian civilizations did not know the wheels, the Inca roads were intended for pedestrians and caravans of lamas. The road along the ocean coast, stretching 4055 km from Tumbes in the north to the Maule River in Chile, had a standard width of 7.3 m.The Andean mountain road was somewhat narrower (from 4.6 to 7.3 m), but longer (5230 km). At least a hundred bridges were built on it - wooden, stone, or cable cars; four bridges crossed the gorges of the Apurimak River. Every 7.2 km there were distance indicators, and after 19-29 km - stations for travelers' rest. In addition, courier stations were located every 2.5 km. Couriers (chaski) transmitted news and orders on the relay, and thus information was transmitted over 2000 km in 5 days.

Preservation of information.

Historical events and legends were kept in memory by specially trained storytellers. The Incas invented a mnemonic storage medium called kipu (literally, node). It was a rope or stick with colored laces with knots hanging from it. The information contained in the pile was orally explained by a specialist in nodular writing, kipu-kamayok, otherwise it would have remained incomprehensible. Each governor of the province carried with him many kippu-kamayok. , who kept meticulous records of the population, soldiers, taxes. The Incas used the decimal numbering system, they even had a zero symbol (skipping a knot). Spanish conquistadors left rave reviews about the system kippu .

The courtiers of the kipu-kamayok performed the duties of historiographers, compiling lists of the deeds of the Inca. Through their efforts, an official version of the history of the state was created, excluding references to the achievements of the conquered peoples and affirming the absolute priority of the Incas in the formation of the Andean civilization.

Religion.

The Inca religion was closely related to government. The god-demiurge Viracocha was considered the ruler of all that exists, he was helped by deities of a lower rank, among whom the sun god Inti was most revered. The worship of the sun god, who became a symbol of the Inca culture, was official. The Inca religion included numerous decentralized cults of gods who personified natural realities. In addition, the veneration of magical and sacred objects (huaca) was practiced, which could be a river, lake, mountain, temple, stones collected from the fields.

Religion was practical in nature and permeated the entire life of the Incas. Agriculture was considered a sacred occupation, and everything associated with it became huaca. The Incas believed in the immortality of the soul. It was believed that an aristocrat, regardless of his behavior in earthly life, after death falls into the abode of the Sun, where there is always warmth and abundance; as for the commoners, only virtuous people got there after death, and sinners went to a kind of hell (oko-paka), where they suffered from cold and hunger. Thus, religion and customs influenced the behavior of people. Ethics and morality of the Incas boiled down to one principle: "Ama sua, ama llyulya, ama chelya" – "Don't steal, don't lie, don't be lazy."

Art.

Inca art gravitated towards austerity and beauty. The weaving of llama wool was distinguished by a high artistic level, although it was inferior in the richness of decoration to the fabrics of the peoples of the Costa. Carving of semi-precious stones and shells, which the Incas received from the coastal peoples, was widely practiced.

However, the main art of the Incas was casting from precious metals. Almost all of the now known Peruvian gold deposits were developed by the Incas. Goldsmiths and silversmiths lived in separate city blocks and were exempt from taxes. The best works of Inca jewelers perished during the conquest. According to the testimony of the Spaniards, who first saw Cusco, the city blinded with a golden sheen. Some buildings were covered with gold plates imitating stonework. The thatched roofs of the temples had golden blotches that imitated straws, so that the rays of the setting sun lit them with brilliance, giving the impression that the entire roof was made of gold. In the legendary Coricancha, the Temple of the Sun in Cusco, there was a garden with a golden fountain, around which life-size maize stalks, made of gold, "grew" from golden "earth" with leaves and cobs and "grazed" on the golden grass twenty llamas of gold - again -so in full size.

Architecture.

In the realm of material culture, the Inca's most impressive achievements were in architecture. Although the Inca architecture is inferior to the Mayan in terms of the richness of decor and the Aztec in terms of emotional impact, there is no equal in that era, either in the New or in the Old World, in terms of bold engineering decisions, grandiose scale of urban planning, and skillful layout of volumes. Inca monuments, even in ruins, are amazing in their number and size. The Machu Picchu fortress, built at an altitude of 3000 m in the saddle between the two peaks of the Andes, gives an idea of ​​the high level of Inca urban planning. Inca architecture is distinguished by its extraordinary plasticity. The Incas erected buildings on treated rock surfaces, fitting stone blocks together without mortar, so that the structure was perceived as a natural element of the natural environment. In the absence of rocks, sunburned bricks were used. Inca craftsmen knew how to cut stones according to given patterns and work with huge stone blocks. The fortress (pucara) of Saskahuaman, which defended Cusco, is undoubtedly one of the greatest works of fortification art. 460 m long, the fortress consists of three tiers of stone walls with a total height of 18 m. The walls have 46 ledges, corners and buttresses. In the Cyclopean foundation masonry, there are stones weighing more than 30 tons with beveled edges. The construction of the fortress took at least 300,000 stone blocks. All stones are irregular in shape, but fit together so firmly that the walls withstood countless earthquakes and deliberate attempts at destruction. The fortress has towers, underpasses, living quarters and an internal water supply system. The Incas began building in 1438 and finished 70 years later, in 1508. According to some estimates, 30 thousand people were involved in the construction.

THE FALL OF THE INX EMPIRE

It is still difficult to understand how a miserable handful of Spaniards could have conquered a powerful empire, although many considerations have been put forward on this score. By that time, the Aztec empire had already been conquered by Hernan Cortes (1519-1521), but the Incas did not know about this, since they had no direct contacts with the Aztecs and Maya. The Incas first heard of white people in 1523 or 1525, when a certain Alejo Garcia, at the head of the Chiriguano Indians, attacked an empire's outpost at Gran Chaco, an arid lowland on the empire's southeastern border. In 1527, Francisco Pizarro briefly landed at Tumbes on the northwestern Peruvian coast and soon sailed, leaving two of his men behind. Ecuador was then devastated by a smallpox epidemic brought in by one of these Spaniards.

Emperor Huayna Capac died in 1527. According to legend, he was aware that the empire was too large to rule from one center in Cuzco. Immediately after his death, a dispute over the throne broke out between two of his five hundred sons - Huascar from Cuzco, the son of his lawful wife, and Atahualpa from Ecuador. The feud between the blood brothers resulted in a five-year devastating civil war, in which Atahualpa won a decisive victory just two weeks before Pizarro's second appearance in Peru. The winner and his 40,000-strong army rested in the provincial center of Cajamarca in the north-west of the country, from where Atahualpa was going to go to Cuzco, where the official ceremony of his elevation to the imperial dignity was to take place.

Pizarro arrived at Tumbes on May 13, 1532 and moved to Cajamarca with 110 foot and 67 horse soldiers. Atahualpa was aware of this from intelligence reports, on the one hand accurate, on the other - biased in interpretation of the facts. So, the scouts assured that the horses do not see in the dark, that the man and the horse are a single creature that, when they fall, is no longer able to fight, that the arquebusses emit only thunder, and even then only twice, that the Spanish long steel swords are completely unsuitable for battle. A detachment of conquistadors on its way could be destroyed in any of the gorges of the Andes.

Having occupied Cajamarca, protected by walls on three sides, the Spaniards conveyed to the emperor an invitation to come to the city to meet with them. Until now, no one can explain why Atahualpa let himself be lured into a trap. He knew very well about the strength of the strangers, and the favorite tactical technique of the Incas themselves was precisely an ambush. Perhaps the emperor was driven by some special impulses beyond the understanding of the Spaniards. In the evening of November 16, 1532, Atahualpa appeared in the Cajamarca square in all the splendor of the imperial regalia and accompanied by a large retinue - albeit unarmed, as demanded by Pizarro. After a short, unintelligible conversation between an Inca demigod and a Christian priest, the Spaniards pounced on the Indians and killed almost everyone in half an hour. During the massacre of the Spaniards, only Pizarro was injured, accidentally wounded in the arm by his own soldier, when he was blocking Atahualpa, whom he wanted to take prisoner safe and sound.

After that, apart from several fierce skirmishes in different places, the Incas did not actually offer serious resistance to the conquerors until 1536. The captive Atahualpa agreed to buy his freedom by filling the room where he was kept twice with silver and once with gold. However, this did not save the emperor. The Spanish accused him of conspiracy and "crimes against the Spanish state" and after a short formal trial on August 29, 1533, they strangled him with a garrotto.

All these events plunged the Incas into a state of strange apathy. The Spaniards, almost without encountering resistance, reached Cuzco along the great road and took the city on November 15, 1533.

Novoink state.

Manco the Second.

Having made the former Inca capital of Cuzco the center of Spanish rule, Pizarro decided to give the new power a form of legitimacy, and for this he appointed Huayne Capac's grandson Manco II as the emperor's successor. The new Inca had no real power and was constantly humiliated by the Spaniards, but, nursing plans for an uprising, he showed patience.

In 1536, when part of the conquistadors, led by Diego Almagro, went on an expedition of conquest to Chile, Manco, under the pretext of searching for imperial treasures, slipped out of the hands of the Spaniards and raised an uprising. The moment was favorable for this. Almagro and Pizarro, at the head of their supporters, started a dispute over the division of military booty, which soon escalated into open war. By that time, the Indians had already felt the yoke of the new power and realized that they could only get rid of it by force.

Having destroyed all the Spaniards in the vicinity of Cuzco, four armies fell on the capital on April 18, 1536. The defense of the city was led by an experienced soldier Hernando Pizarro, brother of Francisco Pizarro. He had only 130 Spanish soldiers and 2,000 Native American allies at his disposal, but he displayed outstanding martial arts and withstood the siege. At the same time, the Incas attacked Lima, founded by Pizarro in 1535 and declared new capital Peru. Since the city was surrounded by flat terrain, the Spaniards successfully used cavalry and quickly defeated the Indians. Pizarro sent four detachments of conquistadors to help his brother, but they could not get through to the besieged Cuzco. The three-month siege of Cusco was lifted due to the fact that many of the warriors left the Inca army in connection with the beginning of agricultural work; in addition, the army of Almagro, returning from Chile, was approaching the city.

Manco II and thousands of his loyal men retreated to prearranged positions in the Vilcabamba mountain range northeast of Cuzco. The Indians took with them the surviving mummies of the former Inca rulers. Here Manco II created the so-called. New Inca state. In order to protect the southern road from military attacks of the Indians, Pizarro set up a military camp in Ayacucho. Meanwhile, the civil war continued between the soldiers of Pizarro and the "Chileans" of Almagro. In 1538, Almagro was captured and executed, and three years later, his supporters killed Pizarro. The warring parties of the conquistadors were headed by new leaders. In the Battle of Chupas near Ayacucho (1542), Inca Manco helped the "Chileans", and when they were defeated, he sheltered six Spanish fugitives in his domain. The Spaniards taught the Indians to ride, firearms and blacksmithing. By setting up ambushes on the imperial road, the Indians obtained weapons, armor, money and were able to equip a small army.

During one of these raids, a copy of the "New Laws" adopted in 1544, with the help of which the king of Spain tried to limit the abuses of the conquistadors, fell into the hands of the Indians. After reviewing this document, Manco II sent one of his Spaniards, Gomez Perez, to negotiate with Viceroy Blasco Nunez Vela. As the strife between the conquistadors continued, the Viceroy was interested in a compromise. Shortly thereafter, the renegade Spaniards who settled in the Novoink state fell out with Manco II, killed him and were executed.

Sairee Tupac and Titu Kusi Yupanqui.

The head of the Novoinka state was the son of Manco II - Sairi Tupac. During his reign, the borders of the state expanded to the upper reaches of the Amazon, and the population increased to 80 thousand people. In addition to the large herds of llamas and alpacas, the Indians raised a fair number of sheep, pigs and cattle.

In 1555 Sairee Tupac launched military operations against the Spaniards. He moved his residence to the warmer climate of the Yucai Valley. Here he was poisoned by those close to him. Power was succeeded by his brother Titu Cusi Yupanqui, who resumed the war. Any attempts by the conquistadors to subdue the independent Indians were in vain. In 1565, Fray Diego Rodriguez visited the Inca citadel in Vilcabamba in order to lure the ruler out of hiding, but his mission was unsuccessful. His reports on the morals of the royal court, the number and combat readiness of the soldiers give an idea of ​​the strength of the New Wink state. The next year, another missionary made a similar attempt, but during negotiations, Titu Kusi fell ill and died. A monk was blamed for his death and was executed. Subsequently, the Indians killed several more Spanish ambassadors.

Tupac Amaru, the last Inca Supreme.

After the death of Titu Cusi, another of the sons of Manco II came to power. The Spaniards decided to end the citadel at Vilcabamba, made gaps in the walls and, after a fierce battle, took the fortress. Tupac Amaru and his collared commanders were taken to Cuzco. Here in 1572, in the main city square, with a large number of people, they were beheaded.

Spanish domination.

The colonial authorities of Peru retained some of the administrative forms of the Inca Empire, adapting them for their own needs. The colonial administration and the latifundists ruled the Indians through intermediaries - the communal headmen of the "kurak" – and did not interfere with the daily life of the householders. The Spanish authorities, like the Inca, practiced mass resettlement of communities and a system of labor services, and also formed a special class of servants and artisans from the Indians. The corrupt colonial authorities and the exorbitantly greedy latifundists created unbearable conditions for the Indians and provoked numerous uprisings that took place throughout the colonial period.

Literature:

Bashilov V. Ancient civilizations of Peru and Bolivia... M., 1972
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega. History of the Inca state... L., 1974
Zubritsky Yu. Inky Quechua... M., 1975
Culture of Peru... M., 1975
Berezkin Yu. Mochica... L., 1983
Berezkin Yu. The Incas. Historical experience of the empire... L., 1991

"State of the Incas"

1. Formation of the Inca state

The Incas dominated what is now called Peru for a long time. During the period when the territory of the empire reached largest sizes, it included part of South America and extended for almost a million square kilometers. In addition to present-day Peru, the empire included most of today's Colombia and Ecuador, almost all of Bolivia, the northern regions of the Republic of Chile and northwestern Argentina.

Term the Incas, or rather Inca, has a variety of meanings. Firstly, this is the name of the entire ruling stratum in the state of Peru. Secondly, this is the ruler's t itul. Third, the name of the people as a whole. Original name inca worn by one of the tribes that lived in the valley of Cuzco before the formation of the state. Many facts indicate that this tribe belonged to the Quechua language group, since the Incas of the heyday of the state spoke this language. The close relationship of the Incas with the Quechua tribes is evidenced by the fact that the representatives of these tribes received a privileged position in comparison with other tribes and were called "Incas by privilege." The "Inca by privilege" did not pay tribute and were not enslaved.

There are 12 known rulers who stood at the head of the state. The first royal couple, who were at the same time brother and sister, were the first Inca, Mango Capac and his wife Mama Okllo. Historical legends tell about the wars of the Inca with the neighboring tribes. The first decade of the XIII century is the beginning of the strengthening of the Inca tribe and, possibly, the time of the formation of an alliance of tribes led by the Inca. The reliable history of the Incas begins with the activities of the ninth ruler - Pachacuti (1438-1463). From this time, the rise of the Incas begins. The state is growing rapidly. In subsequent years, the Incas conquered and subjugated the tribes of the entire Andean region from southern Colombia to Central Chile. The population of the state is 6 million people.

2. Economy of the Incas

The Incas achieved great success in many branches of the economy and, above all, in metallurgy. The mining of copper and tin was of the greatest practical importance. Silver deposits were developed. The Quechua language has a word for the name of iron, but most likely it was not an alloy, and the meaning of the word was given by meteoric iron, or hematite. There is no evidence of iron mining and iron ore smelting.

The mined metals were used to create tools and ornaments. Axes, sickles, knives, crowbars, tips for military clubs and many other items needed in the household were cast from bronze. Jewelry and cult items were made of gold and silver.

Weaving was highly developed. The Peruvian Indians were already familiar with looms, and these were looms of three types. The fabrics woven on them were sometimes dyed by the Indians, using for this purpose the seeds of the avocado tree (blue) or various metals, in particular copper and tin. Fabrics made in the distant centuries of the Inca civilization have survived to this day and are distinguished by their richness and delicacy of decoration. Cotton and wool were used as raw materials. They also produced fleecy fabrics for clothing and carpets. For the Inca, as well as members of the royal clan, they made special fabrics - from colored bird feathers.

Agriculture received significant development in the Inca state, although the area where the Inca tribes were located was not particularly conducive to development. Agriculture... This is due to the fact that streams of water flow down the steep slopes of the Andes in the rainy season, washing away the soil layer, and in dry time there is no moisture on them. In such conditions, the Incas had to irrigate the land in order to retain moisture in the fields. For this, special structures were created, which were regularly updated. The fields were arranged in stepped terraces, the lower edge of which was reinforced with masonry, which held back the soil. A dam was built at the edge of the terrace to divert water from the mountain rivers to the fields. The channels were laid out with stone slabs. The state allocated special officials, whose duties included supervision of the serviceability of structures.

On the fertile, or rather became fertile, land in all areas of the empire, a variety of plants were grown, among which the queen was corn, in the Quechua language - Sarah. The Indians knew up to 20 different varieties of corn. Apparently, corn in ancient Peru was brought from the area of ​​Mesoamerica. The most valuable gift of Peruvian agriculture is the potato native to the Andes. The Incas knew up to 250 of its varieties. They grew it in a wide variety of colors: almost white, yellow, pink, brown and even black. The peasants also grew sweet potatoes - yams. Beans were primarily grown from legumes. Pineapples, cocoa, various varieties of pumpkins, nuts, cucumbers, and peanuts were also known to the pre-Columbian Indians. They ate four varieties of spices, including red pepper. A special place was occupied by the cultivation of coca bush.

The main implements of labor in agriculture were the spade and the hoe. The land was cultivated by hand, the Incas did not use draft animals.

The Inca Empire was a land that created many wonders. One of the most remarkable are the ancient Peruvian "Highways of the Sun" - a whole set of highways. The longest of the roads exceeded 5 thousand kilometers. Two main roads ran across the country. Canals were laid along the roads, on the banks of which fruit trees grew. Where the road ran through the sandy desert, it was paved. Where the road crossed with rivers and gorges, bridges were built. The bridges were constructed in the following way: stone pillars served as a support for them, around which five thick ropes, woven from flexible branches or lianas, were fixed; the three lower ropes, which formed the bridge itself, were intertwined with branches and lined with wooden beams. Those ropes that served as railings intertwined with the lower ones and protected the bridge from the sides. These suspension bridges represent one of the greatest advances in Inca technology.

As you know, the peoples of ancient America did not invent wheels. The goods were transported in packs on llamas, and ferries were also used for transportation. Ferries were improved rafts made from beams or beams of very light wood. The rafts went on oars and could lift up to 50 people and a large load.

Most of the tools of production, textiles, and pottery were made in the community, but there was also a separation of handicrafts from agriculture and cattle breeding. The Incas chose the best craftsmen and resettled them to Cuzco, where they lived in a special quarter and worked for the Supreme Inca, receiving food from the court. These masters, cut off from the community, were actually enslaved. In a similar way, girls were selected who had to study spinning, weaving and other handicrafts for 4 years. The labor of craftsmen and spinners was a rudimentary form of the craft.

Gold was not a means of payment. The Incas had no money. The Peruvian Indians simply exchanged their goods. There was no system of measures, except for the most primitive - a handful. There were scales with a rocker, from the ends of which bags with weighed weight were suspended. Exchange and trade were underdeveloped. There were no bazaars inside the villages. The exchange was random. After harvest in certain places there were residents of the highlands and coastal areas. Wool, meat, furs, leather, silver, gold were brought from the highlands. Grain, vegetables and fruits, cotton were brought from the coast. The role of the universal equivalent was played by salt, pepper, furs, wool, ore and metal products.

3. Social structure of the Incas

The Inca tribe consisted of 10 divisions - khatun-ailyu, which, in turn, were divided into 10 ailya each. Initially, the Ailyu was a patriarchal clan, a tribal community: it had its own village and owned the adjacent fields. The names in the tribal community were passed on through the paternal line. Islew were exogamous. It was impossible to marry within the clan. Its members believed that they were under the protection of ancestral shrines - uaca. Islyu were also referred to as pachaka, i.e. a hundred. Khatun-ailyu (large clan) represented a phratry and was identified with a thousand. Islew becomes a rural community in the Inca state. This is reflected in the consideration of land use norms.

All the land in the state belonged to the Supreme Inca, but in fact it was at the disposal of the Ailyu. The territory that belonged to the community was called brand; the land belonging to the community was called Pacha brand, those. community land.

Cultivated land ( chakra) was divided into three parts: "the land of the Sun" - the priests, the fields of the Incas and the fields of the community. Each family had its share of the land, although all of it was cultivated jointly by the whole village, and the members of the community worked together under the direction of the elders. After cultivating one section of the field, they moved on to the Inca fields, then to the fields of the villagers and then to the fields from which the harvest went to general village fund.

Each village had fallow lands and "wild lands" - pastures. Field plots were periodically redistributed between fellow villagers. Field allotment bearing the name stupid was given to a man. For every male child, the father received another dumbass, and for each daughter, half. This was a temporary possession and was subject to redistribution.

In addition to tupu, on the territory of each community there were lands that were called "a vegetable garden, their own land" (muya). This site consisted of a yard, a house, a barn, a barn, a vegetable garden. This site was inherited from father to son. From these plots, the community members could receive surplus vegetables or fruits. They could dry meat, spin and weave, make pottery vessels - everything that they had as private property.

In the communities that formed among the tribes conquered by the Incas, the clan nobility also stood out - chicken. Representatives of the kurak were obliged to monitor the work of the community members and control the payment of taxes. Communities of the conquered tribes cultivated the lands of the Incas. In addition, they cultivated plots of chickens. On the chick farm, the concubines spun and weaved wool or cotton. In the communal herd, the chickens had up to several hundred head of cattle. But nevertheless, the Kurakas were in a subordinate position, and the Incas stood above them as the highest caste.

The Incas themselves did not work. They constituted the military service nobility, were given land plots and workers from the conquered tribes. The lands received from the supreme Inca were considered the private property of the serving nobility. The noble Incas were called nuts (from the Spanish word "nut" - ear) for huge gold earrings that stretched the earlobes.

The priests held a privileged position in society. A portion of the harvest was collected in favor of the priests. They did not obey the local rulers, but constituted a separate corporation. These corporations were ruled by the high priesthood located in Cuzco.

The Incas had a number of workers — the Yanacunas — whom the Spanish chroniclers called slaves. This category was wholly owned by the Incas and did all the black work. The position of these Yanakunas was hereditary.

The community members performed most of the productive labor. But the emergence of a large group of hereditarily enslaved workers testifies to the fact that society in Peru was early slave-owning with the preservation of significant remnants of the tribal system.

The Inca state had a peculiar structure. It was called Tahuantinsuyu - "four areas joined together." Each area was ruled by a governor, who was usually a direct relative of the ruling Inca. They were called "apo". Together with several other dignitaries, they made up the state council of the country, which could express their proposals and ideas to the Inca. In the districts, power was in the hands of local officials.

At the head of the state was the ruler - "Sapa Inca" - the sole ruling Inca. Sapa Inca commanded the army and headed the civil administration. He and senior officials watched the governors. To control the regions and districts, there was a permanent postal service. Messages were relayed by runner-runners. On the roads, not far from each other, there were post stations, where messengers were always on duty.

The Incas introduced the compulsory language for all - Quechua. They split up the tribes and settled in parts in different areas. This policy was carried out in order to consolidate the subordination of the conquered tribes and to prevent discontent and uprisings. Laws were created to protect the rule of the Incas.

4. Religion and culture of the Incas

In accordance with the religious views of the Incas, the Sun occupied a dominant position among the gods and ruled the entire unearthly world.

The official religious system of the Incas was the "heliocentric" system. It is based on submission to the Sun - Inti. Inti was usually depicted in the form of a golden disk, from which rays emanated in all directions. The face of a man is depicted on the disc itself. The disk was made of pure gold - that is, the metal that belonged to the Sun.

The spouse of Inti and at the same time the mother of the Incas - in accordance with the beliefs of the Indians - was the goddess of the moon Kilya.

The third "inhabitant of the firmament", also revered in the Inca empire, was the god Ilyapa - simultaneously thunder and lightning.

Temples possessed enormous wealth, a large number of servants and craftsmen, architects, jewelers and sculptors. The main content of the Inca cult was a sacrificial ritual. The sacrifices were carried out mainly by animals and only in extreme cases by people. Emergency there could be festivities at the time of the accession to the throne of the new supreme Inca, during an earthquake, drought, war. Prisoners of war or children were sacrificed, who were taken in the form of tribute from the conquered tribes.

Along with the official religion of worshiping the Sun, there were also more ancient religious views. Their essence was reduced to the deification of not great, powerful gods, but sacred sites and items so-called uak.

In the religion of the Incas great place occupied totemistic views. The communities were named after animals: Pumamarca (cougar communities), Condormarca (condor community), Huamanmarka (hawk community), etc. The worship of plants, primarily potatoes, was close to totemism, since this plant had a primary role in the life of the Peruvians. Images of this plant have been preserved in sculpture - vessels in the form of tubers. There was also a cult of the forces of nature. The cult of mother earth, called Pacha-mama, was especially developed.

The cult of ancestors was of great importance. The ancestors were revered as patron spirits and guardians of the land of a given community and the area in general. There was a custom of mummification of the dead. Mummies in smart clothes with ornaments and household utensils were preserved in the tombs. The cult of mummies of rulers reached a particular development. Supernatural powers were attributed to them. The mummies of the rulers were taken on campaigns and carried out to the battlefield.

To measure space, the Incas had measures based on the size of parts of the human body. The smallest of these measures was considered to be the length of the finger, then a measure equal to the distance from the bent thumb to the index. To measure the land, a measure of 162 cm was most often used. For counting, a counting board was used, which was divided into strips, compartments in which counting units moved, and round pebbles. Time was measured by the time it took for the potatoes to cook, which means approximately one hour. The time of day was determined by the sun.

The Incas had an idea of ​​the solar and lunar years. To observe the sun, as well as to accurately determine the time of the equinox and solstice, astronomers of the Inca empire built special "observatories" in many places in Peru. The largest observation point for the sun was in Cuzco. The position of the sun was observed from specially built four towers to the east and west of Cuzco. This was necessary to determine the timing of the agricultural cycle.

Astronomy was one of the two most important scientific concepts in the Inca empire. Science was supposed to serve the interests of the state. The activities of astronomer scientists, who, thanks to their observations, could establish the most suitable dates for starting or simply performing certain agricultural work, brought considerable benefit to both the state and all its citizens.

The Inca calendar was primarily sun-oriented. The year was considered to consist of 365 days, divided into twelve 30-day months, after which the calendar was followed by five (and in a leap year - six) final days, which were called "days without work."

There were schools for boys. Boys from among the noble Incas, as well as the nobility of the conquered tribes, were accepted there. Thus, the task of educational institutions was to prepare the next generation of the empire's elite. We studied at the school for four years. Each year he gave certain knowledge: in the first year they studied the Quechua language, in the second - the religious complex and calendar, and in the third or fourth years they spent studying the so-called kipu, signs that served as "nodular writing."

The kipu consisted of a rope, to which at right angles were tied in rows of cords hanging in the form of a fringe. Sometimes there were up to a hundred such cords. Knots were tied on them at different distances from the main rope. The shape of the knots and their number indicated numbers. This record was based on the Inca decimal system. The position of the knot on the lace corresponded to the value of the digital indicators. It could be one, ten, one hundred, one thousand, or even ten thousand. At the same time, a simple knot denoted the number "1", a double - "2", a triple - "3". The color of the cords indicated certain objects, for example, potatoes were symbolized in brown, silver - white, gold - yellow.

This form of writing was used mainly for the transmission of messages about taxes. But sometimes the kipu was used to record calendar and historical dates and facts. Thus, the kipu were a conventional system for transmitting information, but still it was not a written language.

The question of whether the Incas had a written language remains unresolved until recently. The fact is that the Incas left no written monuments, but nevertheless, many vessels depict beans with special signs. Some scholars consider these signs to be ideograms, i.e. the signs on the beans have a symbolic, conventional meaning.

There is also an opinion that the Inca writing existed in the form of pictorial writing, pictography, but due to the fact that the boards on which these signs were applied were framed in gold frames, plundered and dismantled by Europeans, the written monuments have not survived to this day. ...

Literary creativity in the Quechua language was very rich. However, since these works were not recorded in writing and were preserved in the memory of the reciters, only fragments preserved for posterity by the first Spanish chroniclers have come down to us.

From the poetic creativity of the Incas, hymns (the hymn of Viracoche), mythical legends, and poems of historical content have been preserved in excerpts. The most famous is the poem "Ollantai", which praises the exploits of the leader of one of the tribes who rebelled against the supreme Inca.

Medicine was one of the most developed branches of science in the Inca empire. The state of health of the inhabitants was not a private matter of citizens, on the contrary, the empire was interested in the fact that the inhabitants of the country served the state as best as possible.

The Incas used some scientific methods to cure diseases. Many medicinal plants have been used; surgical intervention was also known, such as, for example, craniotomy. Along with scientific methods, the practice of magical quackery was widespread.

5. End of the Inca state. Portuguese conquests

Pizarro's troops captured Cuzco in 1532. The Supreme Inca Atahualpa was killed. But the Inca state did not immediately cease to exist. The inhabitants of the ancient state continued to fight for their independence. In 1535, a rebellion breaks out. It was suppressed in 1537, but its members continued to struggle for independence for more than 35 years.

The Inca prince Manco led the uprising against the Spaniards, who used cunning methods in the fight against the conquerors. He first went over to the side of the Spaniards and approached Pizarro, but only with the aim of studying the enemy. Having begun to collect forces from the end of 1535, Manco in April 1536 with a large army approached Cuzco and laid siege to it. He forced the captive Spaniards to serve him as gunsmiths, gunners and powder makers. Spanish firearms and captured horses were used. Manco himself was dressed and armed in Spanish, rode horseback and fought with Spanish weapons. The rebels often achieved great success, combining the techniques of the original Indian military affairs with the European. But bribery and betrayal forced Manco after 10 months of the siege of Cuzco to leave this city. The rebels continued their fight in the mountainous region of Ville-Capampé, where they fortified themselves. After Manco's death, Tupac Amaru becomes the leader of the rebels.

Resistance to the ever-growing forces of the conquerors was in vain, and the rebels were eventually defeated. In memory of this last war against the conquerors, the Inca title and the name Tupac Amaru were later accepted by the leaders of the Indians as a symbol of the restoration of their independent state.

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When we hear the concepts of "Inca", "Maya" or "Aztecs", we are mentally transported overseas, into the mountains and jungles of the American continent. It was there that these little-known tribes of the Indians lived - the creators of the civilization of the Incas, Aztecs and Mayans, which we will briefly talk about further. From history we know only that they were skilled craftsmen. The Incas built large cities, connected by roads as if cars were racing along them. The pyramids were erected similar to the Egyptian ones, but according to local religious beliefs. Irrigation canals made it possible to feed the people with their own agricultural products.

The Incas created calendars, chronology and writing, had an observatory and were well oriented by the stars. And suddenly, overnight, all civilizations disappeared. Many scientists are working on a solution to the reasons for a rather strange, even from the standpoint of modern science, socio-demographic phenomenon. The first is to present the Inca civilization in a short description.

Ancient Incas

Considering geographic map the South American continent, its vertical division by the Andes mountains is striking. To the east of the mountains stretches Pacific Ocean... This area, closer to the north, in the 11th - 15th centuries was chosen by the most ancient Indian tribe of the Incas - in their language it is pronounced as "Quechua". In such a short period, in terms of its known scale, it is difficult to create a unique and one of the early class civilizations of Mesoamerica. The Incas succeeded in this, perhaps with some outside help.

It stretched for five thousand kilometers from north to south - this is exactly half the length of the Russian Federation. It included the territories, in whole or in part, of eight modern Latin American countries. These lands were inhabited by about twenty million people.

Archaeologists say that the Quechua culture did not begin from scratch. It has been proven that a significant part either came to Quechua from outside, or they settled on foreign territory and appropriated the achievements of previous civilizations.

The Incas were good warriors and did not disdain the seizure of new territories. From the Mochica culture and the Kari state, they could adopt the technology of making colored ceramics, laying canals on the fields, from Nazca - the installation of underground water pipes. The list goes on.

What the Quechua themselves have succeeded in doing is in stone cutting. The blocks for the buildings were so finely cut that no bonding material was required when laying them. The pinnacle of architecture is a group of temples under the general name of the Golden Courtyard with the Temple of the Sun God. The supreme rulers of Quechua simply adored gold, they covered the palaces of the emperor from floor to ceiling. All this luxury was melted down by the Spanish conquistadors and transported home in ingots. Only the majestic pyramids on the lifeless land remind of the former greatness.

Ancient maya

The Maya tribe had everything that characterized ancient civilizations, except for a wheel and tools made of metal. The tools were carved with high quality from strong stone, even for cutting wood.

The Maya skillfully erected buildings using arched ceilings, rare for those times, and knowledge of geometry helped to correctly lay irrigation canals. They were the first to know how to get cement. Their surgeons performed operations with a frozen glass scalpel.

Like the Incas (Quechua), the Maya had a great knowledge of space and the stars. But hardly any of them could own spacecraft. But then why did they need a domed observatory tower that has survived to this day? The building is positioned so that it is better to navigate the orbit of the brightest planet. Just to create a calendar aimed at this planet? There were obviously other plans. No wonder there are mysterious images of flying people on the rocks.

There is also such a version of the origin of the Maya: perhaps they sailed to America on ships from another continent. Like the Incas, the Maya used the experience of a more advanced civilization - the Olmecs, who came from nowhere on the American continent. For example, their experience of making drinks from a substance similar to chocolate, and in religion they adopted deities in the form of animals.

The Maya disappeared in the 10th century AD. And the Incas, and the Maya, and the Olmecs suffered the same fate - their civilizations ceased to exist in their prime. Running two versions of the death of the Maya - ecology and conquest. The second is evidenced by the artifacts of other tribes in the territory where the Mayans lived.

Ancient aztecs

Up to a dozen tribes have lived on the fertile lands of the Mexican Valley for centuries. At the beginning of the 14th century, the Tepanec tribe appeared there. Militant, to the point of impossibility of cruelty, it conquered all other tribes. Their allies in the seizure of territories were a small tribe of Tenochki.

These were the Aztecs. This name was given to them by neighboring tribes. The Aztecs were expelled by other tribes to a deserted island. And from here came the power of the Aztecs to the entire valley of Mexico, where up to ten million people already lived. Trade with all who accepted them. Thousands of people lived in cities. The state has grown to unprecedented proportions.

Origin and history of the Inca tribe

During the late intermediate period (1000-1483), small tribes - the predecessors of the Incas - lived in the Cuzco region. The Incas were just one of the many local populations. Although information on the chronology and development of the Cuzco region is incomplete, some of the main stages of Peruvian archeology can be recognized in the styles of local ceramics. Evidence of Huari's influence is found in the very south of the valley, at Piquillacte, about 30 kilometers south of Cuzco. However, in the area of ​​Cusco itself, there are no traces of Huari architecture or ceramics. It is assumed that it was not permanently populated in the middle horizon. The main pottery style prevalent in the period preceding the era of the Inca Empire is generally called sprat, and varieties of this style are found everywhere between San Pedro de Cacha and Machu Picchu. The local origin of the Incas is proved by the fact that the sprat style is akin to the characteristic style of the Incas of the period of their empire.

On the hills were found partially preserved structures - settlements of the late intermediate period, in which some attempt to adhere to the general plan can be seen. This period is characterized by round and square structures, not very similar to the houses of Pikilakta. The Spanish conquerors heard from the Incas that before they began to rule, the peoples of the Sierra (mountains) were very diverse and disorganized and settled in hard-to-reach places, because they were constantly at war with each other.

Written accounts of the early Inca period, roughly between 1200 and 1438. - are very unreliable historical evidence. This period covers the time from the founding of the Inca dynasty until 1438, when the Inca Empire was already the most significant state in the Andes.

Origin myths say that the Incas originally consisted of three original tribal groups, united under the leadership of Manco Capaca, the legendary founder of the dynasty. These myths tell how the Incas searched for fertile land and found it in the valley of Cuzco and how they settled on this land.

Upon their arrival in Cusco, the Incas faced resistance and were forced to settle nearby until they recaptured the site where they later built the famous temple of the Sun, Coricancha. The power of Manco Capaca extended only to the indigenous natives of the Cuzco area. The second and third leaders of the Incas after him, Sinchi Roca and Lloque Yupanqui, had a reputation for peace lovers, while the fourth, Maita Capac, aroused hostility, and as a result, a revolt broke out among the inhabitants of Cuzco itself.

The fifth, sixth and seventh Inca leaders captured small territories in the surrounding areas. During this early period, neither the Incas nor their neighbors pursued organized conquests, but occasionally raided neighboring villages when they were in danger of defending their rights, or when they appeared to have something to plunder.

Inca Viracocha, eighth ruler of the Inca dynasty, was the first to take the title Sapa Inca(The One, or Supreme Inca). He put an end to local conquests, forming a relatively small but powerful state. At the end of his reign, a situation was created that was critical for the Incas, since the Cusco region was threatened from three sides. In the south, the tribes were strong opponents stakes and lupaka, but they were at enmity with each other, and the Incas could focus their attention on the west and northwest, where the tribes lived Quechua and chunk. The Incas were on friendly terms with the Quechua, a powerful people, a kind of buffer between the Incas and the formidable Chanka tribe. It became stronger and stronger and had already captured the province of Andahuillas, which was formerly occupied by Quechua, settling on its territory. Foreseeing an inevitable clash in the future with the powerful Chanka, Inca Viracocha strengthened the position of his people by marrying the daughter of the tribal leader anta, closest neighbors to the northwest, and forming an alliance with Quechua.

When the Chunk reached the Incas, Viracocha was already an old man, and the people had a strong belief in the invincibility of the Chunk. Viracocha and his heir, Inca Urcon, apparently simply fled from Cuzco with their retinue. However, the situation was saved by another group of Inca nobility and military leaders, led by Yupanqui, another son of the Inca Viracocha, who summoned as many soldiers as he could under his banners and successfully defended Cuzco. Then the Chunks were defeated in a number of battles, and it turned out that the Incas won the struggle for power and began to reign supreme in the mountains. After these events, Viracocha was out of work, and Yupanqui was proclaimed Pachacuti. He retained his power and was crowned as the ruler of the Incas.

The late Inca period, or the period of the empire, began with the reign of the Inca Pachacuti Yupanqui in 1438 and ended with the Spanish conquest in 1532. The history of the Incas of this period is much more reliable than the previous one. There is quite reliable information about the reign of the Inca rulers and about the military expansion of the empire that spread to the entire territory of the Andes (see Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Territory of the Inca Empire with an indication of the areas annexed as a result of the wars of the late Inca period (according to J. Rove)

The Inca Pachacuti consolidated previous conquests and new alliances by allocating lands near Cuzco to new subjects and giving them the opportunity to participate in the newly created administrative structure of Cuzco with the right to call themselves Incas. He then set about developing reforms that would integrate the new provinces into the growing state.

The Inca ruler began a military campaign to annex the lands of the tribe urubamba, located to the west of the territories of Quechua and Chunk, and the southern lands up to Lake Titicaca. Having achieved military success, but realizing the urgent need to create a new effective control system, Inca Pachacuti considered it a blessing to stay in the capital permanently, transferring command of the troops to his brother Capac Yupanqui, who was ordered to move north and conquer territories within clearly defined and limited limits - apparently, before Huanuco himself. Complications arose after a successful campaign when the Chanka Indians, whom the Inca Pachacuti had accepted into his army, deserted near Huanuco. In pursuit of the Chunk, Capac Yupanqui overstepped strictly stipulated boundaries, lost the fugitives, and then - probably hoping to regain the favor of the Inca Pachacuti - attacked and captured Cajamarca, the most powerful possession in the northern mountains. Leaving a small garrison there, Capac Yupanqui returned to Cuzco and was executed here for abuse of power and for allowing the Chunk to leave.

The brutal punishment that befell Capac Yupanqui will become clearer if you look at the situation from the point of view of Inca Pachacuti. Cajamarca was an important province and allied with the coastal state of Chimu, growing, powerful and extremely well-organized - it represented the only obstacle to the expansion of the Incas northward. At that time, Pachacuti was not ready to fight the entire army of Chimu and therefore feared their possible attack on the small garrison left in the prematurely captured Cajamarca. In addition, Capac Yupanqui, due to his apparent success, could arouse the jealousy of the Inca Pachacuti.

Inca Pachacuti had to first set out on his own to suppress the uprising in the south, in the basin of Lake Titicaca, before he could again turn his attention to the north. At his will, Inca Topa, his son and heir, led the army and led it on a campaign across the highlands as far as Quito. Then, reaching the coast of what is now Ecuador, Inca Topa turned his army southward, approaching the country of Chimu from where they least expected him. He successfully conquered the entire north and central coast to the very Lurin Valley. Soon after this great campaign, the Inca Topa undertook another to subdue the valleys of the southern coast from Nazca to Mala. While the Inca Topa expanded the empire, the Inca Pachacuti remained in Cuzco, adjusting the administrative structure and rebuilding Cuzco into a capital corresponding to the imperial scale.

The Inca Topa became ruler in about 1471. He had just begun a campaign in the eastern forests when stakes and lupac raised an uprising in the south - a serious threat that had to be dealt with as quickly as possible. After successfully suppressing the rebellion, the Inca occupied the territory of Bolivia and Chile, penetrating south as far as the Maule River, which has since remained the southern border of the empire.

After the completion of the eastern expedition, the Inca Topa, like his father, fundamentally settled in Cuzco, closely engaged in the formation of the empire, restructuring and making more flexible administrative policy so that it would suit the many new tribes and provinces, now united under one rule. Perhaps it was this Inca who expanded the conceptual system of the Incas at the expense of some ideas of the chimu, since it was he who convinced many noble people and artisans of the chimu to move to live in Cuzco.

Inca Topa died in 1493 and was succeeded by his son Huayna Capac. This Inca suppressed several uprisings and annexed new lands to the empire. chachapoyas and my bamba as well as the area north of Quito, where he established boundary markers along the Ancamayo River (today's border between Ecuador and Colombia). His merit was also the full integration of the territory of Ecuador into the empire and the construction of new cities like Tomebamba, where he himself lived for a long time. Before his death in this city - he died suddenly from the plague - Huayna Kapak learned that some strange bearded people had been seen on the coast (this was Pizarro's first expedition).

During the five years that remained to exist for the Inca Empire, Huayna's two sons Capaca, Atahualpa and Huascar, fought a civil war for power. The war was won by Atahualpa, and he was preparing for his official coronation when the Spaniards reappeared in 1532 (see chapter 10).

SECTION ONE Origin and history of the Liturgy.

Inca Dynasty 1. Manco Capac2. Sinchi Roca 3. Lloque Yupanqui 4. Maita Kapak 5. Yupanqui Capac 6. Inca Roca 7. Yauar Huacak 8. Viracocha Inca - Inca Urcon 9. Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (1438-1471) 10. Topa Inca Yupanqui (1471-1493) 11. Huayna Kapak (1493-1525) 12. Huascar (1525-1532); Atahualpa (1532-1533); Topa Hualpa (1532) 13. Manco

Divine origin of the Incas But the Incas themselves had to come from somewhere. It is impossible to completely ignore the places that were in fact the cradle of a civilization that preceded their own, such as the Aymara. According to the legends of the Indians, on an island in the lake

The Real History of the Incas The official story begins with the first Manco Capaca, who is said to have settled in the Cusco Valley. In fact, he supplanted the inhabitants there, but the names of their totems were reflected in various parts of the growing city,