Where weapons were kept in the knight's castle. How to build a medieval castle. All on the wall

Functions

The main functions of the feudal castle with suburbs were:

• military (center of military operations, means of military control over the district),
• administrative and political (the administrative center of the district, the place where the political life of the country was concentrated),
• cultural and economic (craft and trade center of the district, a place of the highest elite and folk culture).

Defining characteristics

There is a widespread belief that castles existed only in Europe, where they originated, and in the Middle East, where the crusaders took them. Contrary to this point of view, similar structures appear in Japan in the 16th and 17th centuries, where they develop without direct contact and influence from Europe and have a completely different history of development, are built differently from European castles and are designed to withstand attacks of a completely different nature.

Components

Hill

A mound of earth, often mixed with gravel, peat, limestone, or brushwood. The height of the embankment in most cases did not exceed 5 meters, although sometimes it reached 10 meters or more. The surface was often covered with clay or wood flooring. The hill was round or close to a square at the base, the diameter of the hill was at least twice the height.

At the top, a wooden, and later stone, defensive tower was erected, surrounded by a palisade. Around the hill was a water-filled or dry moat, from the ground of which an embankment was formed. The tower was accessed via a wooden drawbridge and a staircase on the hillside.

Courtyard

A large courtyard with an area (with rare exceptions) of no more than 2 hectares, surrounding or adjacent to the hill, as well as various residential and outbuildings - the dwellings of the owner of the castle and his soldiers, stables, a forge, warehouses, a kitchen, etc. - inside it. Outside, the courtyard was protected by a wooden palisade, then by a moat, which was filled from the nearest reservoir, and an earthen rampart. The space inside the courtyard itself could be delimited into several parts, or several adjacent courtyards were built near the hill.

Donjon

Castles themselves appeared in the Middle Ages and were the dwellings of feudal nobles. Due to the feudal fragmentation and, as a result, frequent internecine wars, the feudal lord's dwelling had to perform a defensive task as well. Usually castles were built on hills, islands, rock ledges and other hard-to-reach places.

With the end of the Middle Ages, castles began to lose their original - defensive - task, which has now given way to a residential one. With the development of artillery, the defensive task of castles disappeared completely; features of the castle architecture were preserved only as decorative elements (French Pierrefonds castle, late 14th century).

A regular layout with a pronounced symmetry prevailed, the main building acquired a palace character (Madrid Castle in Paris, 15th-16th centuries) or Nesvizh Castle in Belarus (16th century). In the 16th century, castle architecture in Western Europe was finally replaced by palace architecture. The defensive mission was preserved for the longest time by the castles of Georgia, which were actively built until the 18th century.

There were castles that belonged not to one feudal lord, but to a knightly order. Such castles were distinguished by their larger size, as an example is the Königsberg Castle.

Castles in Russia

The main part of the medieval castle was the central tower - donjon, which served as a citadel. In addition to its defensive functions, the donjon was the direct dwelling of the feudal lord. Also in the main tower there were often living rooms of other inhabitants of the castle, a well, utility rooms (food warehouses, etc.). Often there was a large ceremonial hall for receptions. Elements of the donjon can be found in the castle architecture of Western and Central Europe, the Caucasus, Central Asia, etc.

Wasserschloss in Schwerin

Usually the castle had a small courtyard surrounded by massive battlements with towers and well-fortified gates. This was followed by the outer courtyard, which included outbuildings, as well as the castle garden and vegetable garden. The entire castle was surrounded by a second row of walls and a moat, over which a drawbridge was thrown. If the terrain allowed, then the moat was filled with water and the castle turned into a castle on the water.

The centers of defense of the walls of the castle were protruding beyond the plane of the walls of the tower, making it possible to organize flanking shelling of those going to attack. In Russian fortifications, the sections of the walls between the towers were called spinners. In this regard, the castles were in terms of a polygon, the walls of which followed the terrain. Numerous examples of such structures have survived to this day in the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Ukraine and Belarus (for example, the Mir Castle in Belarus or the Lutsk Castle in the Ukraine).

Over time, the structure of the castles became more complex; the territory of the castles already included barracks, a court, a church, a prison and other structures (Kusi castle in France, XIII century; Wartburg castle in Germany, XI century; Harleck castle in Great Britain, XIII century).

Rosenberg Castle in Kronach. Moat and ventilation towers of the auditory gallery

With the beginning of the mass use of gunpowder, the decline of the era of building castles begins. So, the besiegers began to carry out, if the ground allowed it, sapper work - to quietly dig glanders, which made it possible to bring large charges of explosives under the walls (assault on the Kazan Kremlin in the 16th century). As a measure of struggle, the besieged in advance, at a noticeable distance from the walls, dug an underground gallery, from which they listened in order to detect tunnels and their timely destruction.

However, the development of artillery and the increase in its destructive action eventually forced to abandon the use of castles as the basis of defensive strategy and tactics. The time has come for fortresses - complex engineering structures with a developed system of bastions, ravelins, etc.; developed the art of building fortresses - fortification. The recognized authority for the fortification of this era was the chief engineer Louis XIV, Marshal of France Sebastien de Vauban (1633-1707).

Such fortresses, sometimes evolving from castles over time, were also used in World War II to hold down enemy forces and delay their advance (see: Brest Fortress).

Construction

The construction of the castle began with the choice of location and building materials. A wooden castle was cheaper and easier to build than a stone castle. The cost of building most of the castles has not survived to this day; most of the surviving documents on the topic refer to royal palaces... A castle made of wood with a mott and bailey could have been built by unskilled labor - peasants dependent on the feudal lord, who already had the skills necessary to build a wooden castle (they knew how to chop wood, dig and work with wood). Forced to work for the feudal lord, workers, most likely, were not paid anything, so building a castle from wood was cheap. According to experts, it took 50 workers and 40 days to build a medium-sized hill - 5 meters high and 15 meters wide. The renowned architect en: James of Saint George, responsible for the construction of Beaumaris Castle, described the costs associated with the construction of the castle:

A study was conducted that examined the costs associated with the construction of the castle of Lange, built in 992 in France. The stone tower is 16 meters high, 17.5 meters wide and 10 meters long with walls averaging 1.5 meters. The walls contain 1200 square meters of stone and have a surface of 1600 square meters. It was estimated that the tower took 83,000 man-days to build, most of which required unskilled labor.

Stone castles were not only expensive to build, but also expensive to maintain as they contained a large amount of wood, which was often untempered and needed constant maintenance.

Medieval machines and inventions proved to be indispensable during construction; antique timber frame construction techniques have been improved. Finding stone for construction was one of the main problems; often the solution was a quarry near the castle.

Due to the lack of stone, alternative materials were used, such as brick, which was also used for aesthetic reasons, as it was in vogue. Therefore, even in spite of the sufficient amount of stone, some builders chose brick as the main material for the construction of the castle.

The material for construction depended on the terrain: in Denmark there are few quarries, therefore most of its castles are made of wood or brick, in Spain most of the castles are made of stone, while in Eastern Europe, castles were usually built using wood.

Castles today

Nowadays, locks have a decorative function. Some of them are turned into restaurants, others become museums. Some renovate and rent or sell.

Not every castle is actually a castle. Today, the word "castle" we call almost any significant structure of the Middle Ages, be it a palace, a large estate or a fortress - in general, the dwelling of a feudal lord medieval Europe... Such everyday use of the word "castle" is at odds with its original meaning, because a castle is, first of all, a fortification. Inside the castle territory there could be buildings for different purposes: residential, religious, and cultural. But still, first of all, the main castle function is defensive. From this point of view, for example, the famous romantic palace of Ludwig II, Neuschwanstein, is not a castle.

Location, and not the features of the structure of the castle - the guarantee of its defensive power. Of course, the layout of the fortification is important for the defense of the castle, but it is not the thickness of the walls and the location of the loopholes that makes it really impregnable, but the correctly chosen construction site. The steep and high hill, which is almost impossible to get close, the sheer cliff, the winding road to the castle, which is perfectly shot from the fortress, determine the outcome of the battle to a much greater extent than all other equipment.

Gates- the most vulnerable place in the castle. Of course, the fortress had to have a central entrance (in times of peace, it happens, you want to enter beautifully and solemnly, not all the time the castle is defended). When capturing, it is always easier to break into the entrance that already exists than to create a new one, destroying massive walls. Therefore, the gates were designed in a special way - they had to be wide enough for carts and narrow enough for the enemy army. Cinematography often sins by depicting a castle entrance with large wooden gates that can be locked: such would be extremely impractical in defense.

The inner walls of the castle were colored. The interiors of medieval castles are often depicted in gray-brown tones, without any cladding, just like the inside of the naked cold stone walls... But the inhabitants of medieval palaces loved bright colors and lavishly decorated the interior of their living quarters. The inhabitants of the castles were rich and, of course, wanted to live in luxury. Our beliefs are connected with the fact that in most cases the paint has not stood the test of time.

Large windows are rare for a medieval castle. As a rule, they were absent altogether, giving way to multiple small window "slots" in the castle walls. In addition to the defensive purpose, narrow window openings protected the privacy of the castle's inhabitants. If you come across a castle structure with luxurious panoramic windows, most likely they appeared at a later time, as, for example, in the Roctailiad castle in the south of France.

Secret passages, secret doors and dungeons. While walking around the castle, you should know that somewhere under you lie corridors hidden from the eyes of an ordinary person (perhaps someone is wandering around them today?). Potny - underground corridors between the buildings of the fortress - made it possible to unnoticeably move around the fortress or leave it. But the trouble is if the traitor opened secret door enemy, as happened during the siege of the castle of Corfe in 1645.

Storming the castle was not such a fleeting and easy process as it is portrayed in the movies. The massive attack was a rather extreme decision in an attempt to capture the castle, putting the main military force at unnecessary risk. Castle sieges were carefully thought out and took a long time to implement. The most important thing was the ratio of the trebuchet, the throwing machine, to the thickness of the walls. It took the trebuchet from several days to several weeks to punch a hole in the castle wall, especially since just a hole in the wall did not guarantee the capture of the fortress. For example, the siege of Harlech Castle by the future King Henry V lasted for about a year, and the castle fell only because the city ran out of provisions. So the rapid attacks of medieval castles are an element of film fantasy, not historical realities.

Hunger- the most powerful weapon when taking a castle. Most castles had reservoirs for collecting rainwater, or wells. The chances of the castle inhabitants to survive during the siege depended on the supply of water and food: the option to "sit out" was the least risky for both sides.

For the defense of the castle it didn't need as many people as it seems. The castles were built in such a way as to allow those inside to calmly fight off the enemy, making do with small forces. Compare: the garrison of the Harlech castle, which held out for almost a whole year, consisted of 36 people, while the castle was surrounded by an army numbering hundreds, if not thousands of soldiers. In addition, an extra person on the territory of the castle during a siege is an extra company, and as we remember, the issue of provisions could be decisive.

There are many medieval castles scattered across Europe, which many centuries ago were intended to shelter and protect the families of feudal lords. Today, castles are silent witnesses to royal dramas, the fall of great houses and historical events.

Now tourists in winter and summer visit ancient fortresses to see their splendor with your own eyes. We have compiled on this list incredible beautiful castles worth visiting!

1 Tintagel Castle, England

Tintagel is a medieval fort on the promontory of the island of the same name. The castle borders the village of Tintagel in Cornwall. It was built by the representative of the Plantagenet dynasty, Richard in 1233. However, Tintagel is often associated with another famous character - King Arthur. Here he was conceived, born and from here taken away by the wizard Merlin in infancy.

Since the 19th century, the castle has been a tourist attraction and is under the possession of Prince Charles. It is managed by English Heritage, the British State Commission on Historic Buildings.

2 Corvin Castle, Romania

This Gothic castle with Renaissance elements is located in Transylvania, a Romanian town called Hunedoara, on a cliff by the Zlashte River. The castle was built in the middle of the 15th century by the father of the Hungarian king Matthew Corvinus and was inherited until 1508.

Since then, Korvinov has changed 22 owners, and was opened to the public as a museum. The castle is still one of the wonders of Romania, by the way, according to rumors, Vlad Tepes himself, known as Count Dracula, spent seven years in captivity here.

3 Alcazar de Segovia, Spain

This fortress of the Spanish kings is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The castle is located in an incredibly beautiful location - a rock at the confluence of two rivers. Due to its location, it is one of the most recognizable castles in Spain.

In 1120, the Alcazar was used as an Arab fortress. Then there was a royal residence, an artillery academy and even a prison. Currently, it houses a military archive and a museum.

4 Eltz Castle, Germany

Eltz Castle is considered one of two medieval buildings in the Eifel Highlands that were never destroyed or captured. The castle has withstood all the wars and upheavals since its construction in the XII century.

It is surprising that the castle has been owned by the same family for 33 generations - Eltz, whose descendant to this day takes care of it, keeping it intact. The owner opened it for tourists, who are especially attracted by the Eltz treasury with jewelry exhibits and other works of art from different centuries.

5 Windsor Castle, England

For over 900 years this castle has been closely associated with the monarchs of Great Britain and is their symbol. The current ruling Windsor dynasty is named in his honor. The castle was built in the 11th century by William the Conqueror and has been used as a royal residence since the reign of Henry I. Over the centuries, it has been rebuilt and supplemented several times in accordance with the requests of the ruling monarchs.

Interestingly, during the Second World War, the castle served as a refuge for the royal family. Nowadays, the castle is used for state receptions, tourist visits, as well as for the rest of Queen Elizabeth II in the spring of every year.

6 Himeji Castle, Japan

This castle near the city of Himeji is one of the oldest in Japan. Its construction, as a fortress, was started in 1333, and in 1346 the fort was reconstructed into a castle. For a long time he wandered from one samurai clan to another, and only in the 1600s found a master. Then the main part of the 83 wooden buildings of the castle was built.

Films are often filmed on the territory of Himeji, as the castle is well preserved in its original form. In addition, the building belongs to the National Treasures of Japan and is on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

7 Edinburgh Castle, Scotland

This ancient castle is located on Castle Rock in the center of Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland. About 300-odd million years ago there was active volcano! The first mention of this building dates back to 1139, when the nobility and ministers of the church gathered in the royal castle. This continued until 1633, but from that time on, the castle began to be considered the heart of Scotland.

It is worth noting that this fortress survived 26 sieges, making it the most attacked on Earth. The last 150 years Edinburgh castle often renovated, it is now Edinburgh's premier tourist attraction.

8 Hever Castle, England

The castle was built in the XIII century in the south-east of England in the county of Kent, as an ordinary country house. It became famous due to the fact that the Boleyn family lived here from 1462 to 1539. In 1505, he was inherited by Thomas Boleyn, father of Anne, wife of King Henry VIII, whose wedding caused the breakup of England and Rome. True, after the king was bored with his new wife, he executed her in the Tower.

Since then, Hever has passed from one owner to another, but has retained the unique Tudor interiors. The castle is now used as a conference venue, but is also open to the public.

9 Bojnice Castle, Slovakia

It is considered one of the most romantic castles in Europe. Its first mention dates back to 1113 - an ordinary wooden castle in Bojnice, which was gradually fortified. The fortress was officially handed over to the ruler of Slovakia, Matus Czak, by the King of Hungary Wenceslas III in 1302.

Since then, each new owner has reconstructed the castle, and in the end it turned out to be the most visited place in Slovakia. Many fantastic and fabulous films have been filmed here. The castle also houses the Slovak Folk Museum.

10 Bran Castle, Romania

Bran Fortress is a national landmark of Romania. Initially, it was a wooden structure, which was founded in 1212 by the knights of the Teutonic Order, and later, at their own expense, the local residents completed it. In those days, the building served as a defensive fortress.

Bran changed many owners, but most often it is called "Dracula's castle". According to legend, Prince Vlad Chepes, nicknamed Count Dracula, often stopped here and hunted near the castle. In the 20th century, the castle was donated by the locals to Queen Maria of Romania, whose grandson currently owns it. The castle now houses a museum of furniture and art from the collection of Queen Mary.

11 Eilean Donan Castle, Scotland

This beautiful castle, which is recognized as one of the most romantic in Scotland, is located on Donan Island - at the meeting point of three lakes. In the 7th century, a hermit monk lived on the island, after whom the castle was named. In the XIII century, the first fortress was built, and Eilean Donan himself was transferred by the king to the possession of the ancestor of the Scottish clan Mackenzie.

The building was destroyed in 1719, and only at the beginning of the 20th century, the MacRae clan acquired the castle and began to restore it. By the way, this fortress can be seen in the TV series Outlander.

12 Bodiam Castle, England

The land on which the castle is now located went to Edward Dalingridge after his marriage. In 1385, during the 100 Years War, he fortified the estate to protect the area from the French. For several decades, the castle has been passed down from generation to generation. When the family was interrupted at the end of the 15th century, the castle came into the possession of the Leuknor family.

Later, Bodiam changed several owners, each of whom contributed to its restoration, for example, after the siege during the War of the Roses. In 1925, after the death of the then owner, the castle was donated to the national foundation, which still supports it. Now this fortress near the village of Robertsbridge can be visited by anyone.

13 Hohensalzburg Castle, Austria

This building is considered one of the largest of all preserved medieval castles in Europe and is located at an altitude of 120 meters on the top of Mount Festung near Austrian city Salzburg. The castle was built in 1077 under the leadership of the Archbishop of Salzburg, but now only the foundation remains of that building.

Hohensalzburg has been fortified, rebuilt and reconstructed many times. Only in the 16th century did it acquire the form that it is now. The fortress was used as a warehouse, barracks, fort and even a prison during the First World War. Now this castle is a favorite tourist attraction, where you can climb the funicular or walk.

14 Arundell Castle, England

This castle was founded on Christmas Day 1067 by Roger de Montgomery (Earl of Arundel), one of the subjects of William the Conqueror. It later became the main residence of the Howard Dukes of Norfolk, who have owned it for over 400 years.

The castle was rebuilt after damage during the English Civil War in the 17th century, and also renovated with the return of fashion for medieval interiors. Although Arundel is privately owned, most of the castle is open to tourists.

15 Mont Saint Michel, France

This castle is called the architectural wonder of France for a reason. It is a rocky island in northwestern France that was turned into a fortress island in the 8th century. For a long time, monks lived here, and even an abbey was built.

During the 100-year war, the British tried unsuccessfully to conquer this island, and during the French Revolution, when there were no monks on the island, a prison was built here. It was closed in 1863, and in 1874 the island was declared a historical monument. About 3 million tourists come here annually, while local residents only a few dozen people!

These amazing historical monuments have come down to descendants almost in their original form. They preserve the centuries-old history of different peoples, which cannot always be read on the pages of textbooks.

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The first fortifications in the form medieval castles appeared in IX - X centuries... at a time when the countries of Central Europe ( France, Germany and Northern Italy ) began to threaten the aggression and invasion of barbarian tribes, and the Vikings. This greatly hindered the development of the empire created Charlemagne... To protect the land, they began to erect fortifications from wooden buildings. Such architecture " durable wood"for more reliable protection, it was added by the encirclement of an earthen ditch and a rampart. A hinged bridge overturned on chains or strong ropes through the ditch, through which they entered a residential settlement. A palisade was installed on the crest of the rampart. high altitude, safe from penetration inside the strengthening. In the XI century, castles began to be built on artificial hills. Such hills were poured next to the courtyard, fenced off by a high palisade.
Sometimes there was also a log tower overhead. Inside the wooden fortification there were craft workshops, a barn, a well, a chapel and the leader's dwelling with his retinue. For even more reliable and additional defense, a high hill was raised (by about 5 m), on which an additional defensive fortification was built. The hill could be built by an artificial method, by pouring earth on a given surface. The material for construction was always chosen from wood, because the stone was too heavy, which means it could fall down due to its greater weight.

Knight's castles

Locks- these are stone buildings that protected from enemies and served as the home dwelling of one or another owner of the estate. In the most common sense of the word - fortified dwelling of a feudal lord in medieval Europe.
The architecture of medieval castles was significantly influenced by the Ancient Roman Fortifications and Byzantine structures, from where to IX century penetrated into Western Europe. The castles of noble feudal lords, in addition to being housing ones, also performed defensive functions. They tried to build them on areas that are inaccessible to humans (rocky ledges, hills, islands). Inside castles and fortresses, there was a main tower called donjon, in which the most important of its inhabitants (mainly the feudal nobility) took refuge. They tried to make the walls of the castles strong and high enough to protect the buildings from the assault of enemies (siege structures, artillery and stairs). The typical wall was 3 meters thick and 12 meters high. Various cuttings on the tops of the walls made it possible to conduct less safe shelling at the enemy, who was below, and even throw heavy objects towards the storming gates and pour tar. To make the castles difficult to pass, ditches were dug, which blocked access to the walls of the castles and to the gates (the gates were lowered on chains across the moat like a bridge, and at the entrance they were sometimes designed gersu- a descending wooden-metal lattice). The ditches were deep pits filled with water (sometimes with stakes) to prevent the enemy from being overcome by swimming and digging.

Donjon

Donjon was the main building during the defense and was a high stone tower, where the most important people of the castle were hiding in the event of its assault by enemies. The construction of such a building was taken very seriously. This required experienced artisans who were very good at erecting and building reliable stone structures. A particular serious attitude towards such construction among the owners of estates began to appear towards XI century, where it was undertaken to build such defensive towers.
The thickest and most inaccessible dungeons first appeared at Normans... In a later period, almost all of the tall towers were built of stone, which replaced buildings made of wood. In order to completely and completely capture the keep, its enemies needed to destroy stones with special assault installations, or to dig a tunnel under the building in order to get inside. Over time, high, defensive towers acquired a round and polygonal shape during construction. This exterior design provided more comfortable shooting for the keepers' defenders.
The internal architecture of high, defensive towers consisted of a garrison, a main hall and chambers of the owner of the castle and his family. The walls were covered with brick and stonework. Sometimes the walls were faced with hewn stone. In the upper part of the donjon there was a spiral staircase to the watchtower, where the sentinel was located, and next to him was the banner of the owner of the castle with heraldic symbols.

Medieval castles

For more reliable protection, the owners of some castles preferred to build additional fortifications for their walls. Ultimately, after the completion of such structures, a double barrier was obtained, one of which was higher than the other and was located in the rear of the defense. This strategic architecture allowed double fire for the shooters defending the castle. In the event that the enemies took one of the walls by storm, they stumbled upon the next one or even found themselves trapped, since the construction of the walls was connected together with a high tower - the keep.

Medieval castles were the mainstay and the most reliable protection of the feudal lord from enemies. Their appearance is individual for different states.

Castles of France

Castles of France... Numerous construction of architectural structures in France began in the Loire Valley. The oldest of them is keep-donjon Duet la Fontaine... In the historical era King Philip II Augustus (1180-1223 ) medieval castles were built with dungeons and fences, sufficiently reliable in their strength.
A distinctive feature of the French castles is the rounded cone-shaped hipped roof material, which evenly lies on the tower with a neat surface of the obverse design. The upper part of the towers has an angular surface of concave loopholes with windows, merging with the tops of "triangles" and "trapeziums". The location of the middle windows for daylight, are large enough for full penetration of sunlight into the interior of the room. Sometimes large windows are located in the attic roof compartment, most likely to illuminate a particularly important room. In some sections of the buildings, you can see solid, pronounced holes in the loopholes, tk. constant treaty wars of France made these defensive structures cost. In a later period of time, castle designs began to evolve into palace-like architecture.
The entrance to the castle was carried out by stone steps, on the sides of which there were two merging towers. Above the head of the ascending guest, in the wall, towered from three loopholes in the event of a siege or assault on the building. On the right side of the stairs, there were solid and flat slopes for convenient lifting and lowering of various loads.
The most mysterious and shrouded in the secrets of legends was the castle Saumur... In medieval times, it was constantly restored and eventually acquired an unimaginably fabulous appearance. This architecture was so highly regarded that many parts of the buildings were clad in gold materials.
In the courtyard of the Syumor castle there was a well with a huge underground reservoir. A house was built above the well (above), and a well gate was located in it, with the help of which a large bucket of water could be raised. The lifting mechanism consisted of wooden wheels connected by a separate tooth and groove.
V 17th century the western part of the castle began to collapse, which caused its abandonment. The building began to be used as a prison and barracks, but soon the architecture was restored and again "elevated" to the podium.
The main distinguishing feature of the castles of France- these are high, gabled roofs of a conical appearance.

Castles of Belgium

Castles of Belgium began to be erected in the Middle Ages with IX century the first millennium. The most outstanding castles are Arenberg, Castle of the Counts of Flanders, Beloy, Vev, Haasbeck, Wall and Anveng... In their appearance, they are small in size, but according to subjective data, they are very cute and attractive. Their main distinguishing feature is the presence of an arched bend in the area of ​​the lower parts of the roofs and the presence of upper domes on some types of locks. On the cone-shaped tops, there are pronounced vertical edges, which also give a peculiar style to the Belgian architecture. On the high tips of the sharp knitting needles, you can see the flaunting coats of arms and various shapes, which add additional uniqueness. To some extent, the castles of Belgium are very similar to the external design of the English, but the British kingdom emphasizes a more rectangular architecture. The windows are tall and large, quite elongated in size. They are most often located in palace-type castles.
The most peculiar in their beauty are the castles Arenberg and Gravensten (Count's castle of Flanders). First by external design very similar to a Catholic church, which is complemented by 2 black domes on the sides. The center is finished with a stair-like roof and an acute-angled small tower that fits very nicely into the interior. The count's castle also stands out for its peculiarly unusual shape. Its defensive wall has convex cylindrical towers, the top of which is much thicker than the bottom. And in the walls, perforated recesses and additional shutters were made for the round architectures placed on them.

Castles of Germany

Castles of Germany are inherently diverse in design, but most have shapes that resemble pointed tops and tall, oblong flat-surfaced towers. The most outstanding of them are Maxburg, Meshpelbrunn, Cochem, Pfalzgrafenstein and Liechtenstein... Many buildings are very similar to French ones, but German architecture has many more numerous extensions on the side walls. Some of the upper roofs of the castles are composed of ladder-like slopes of the side coverings. The sharp and elongated ends of the skyscrapers have different symbols, statues or bell towers, which add even more interest to German architecture. Holes of loopholes ( machicul) of the locks have a fairly wide diameter. Apparently the medieval Germans loved to defend their castles not only with a bow and crossbow, but also with other methods of heavily armed attributes.
The outbuildings sometimes included residential, utility and church premises, which were lined mainly of bricks and formed rectangular courtyards. The main entrance of the castles was blocked by an iron-wooden lattice with a lowering mechanism. The structure of the movement of the lattice down and up was provided by means of an external wall along stone brackets. In some structures of other states, such a rise at the entrance was realized by a narrow sliding of the gap inside the portal.
In Germany, they tried to erect all castles on mountainous and hilly terrain. This excluded a full-fledged, enemy assault; comfortable firing from siege weapons and a tunnel, which was hampered by the rocky rock below the architecture. In some types of buildings, the Germans used the principle of the Tower of Babel, when the height of the standing rushed high up, and the heavenly plane was lined with many loopholes around.

Castles of Spain

Castles of Spain... The architectural buildings of Spain were originally built by the Arabs, since this land was under their rule in the early, medieval period. On one of their hills, they had a magnificent, fortified palace - the Alhambra with openwork arches of the courtyard. But in 1492, the Europeans recaptured southern Spain from the Muslims, and with it - last city Grenada. Initially, Muslims erected buildings very similar to garrison fortresses (alcazabs) with square and acute-angled towers. Later, Europeans began to build tall, round dungeons with alternating structures.
The appearance of Spanish castles has a repeating combination of multiple, tall, elongated flat-surfaced towers, reminiscent of numerous chess pieces and very rook-like. At the top tips of the skyscrapers are small octagonal turrets. From a distance, they look more like rectangular, jagged slabs. The side surface of the walls has a wavy relief, which gives additional originality to the castles. The middle part of the stone covering of the high towers was sometimes covered with an additional layer of convex alternations of huge cobblestones. Such a cunning arrangement of buildings served to prevent the penetration of enemy installations and stairs. As a decoration, the image of a shield with a coat of arms was driven into the stone wall. Just above the middle, were the guards' passageways, which were decorated with curved patterns and various curves, including wide, arched windows.
An example of the described external image of the Moorish style is the castle-palace of El Real de Manzanares, built north of Madrid in 1475 by the first Duke of Infantado. This peculiar architecture had a square structure, which was surrounded by 2 rows of walls with round towers at the corners. Later, the heir to the duke in 1480, added an outstanding gallery and decorated the palace with turrets and stone hemispheres.

Czech castles

Czech castles... The construction of Czech castles was widespread in XIII-XIV centuries... The most famous of them are Deep, Bezdez, Bouzov, Bukhlov, Zvikov, Cost, Karlstein and Krshivoklat... Their architectural appearance is more reminiscent of palaces than seriously fortified defenses against enemy onslaught. Toothed-rectangular slabs and blocking, high walls are practically absent in the defensive functions of the former castles buildings. The main distinguishing feature of Czech architecture is the large triangular and polygonal roofs with pointed towers and stone pipes embedded in them. The attics have arched windows for daylight and rooftop entry. In the central towers of the locks, sometimes large, dial chimes were constructed. Many palaces were built in the Renaissance, Classicism and Gothic styles. Some views were rebuilt and restored, after which they became picturesque, graceful and even more beautiful.

But there are some types of castles that do not at all resemble the standard design of the local medieval buildings. For example a castle Deep(previously Frauenberg ) has an appearance more reminiscent of the Spanish style of architecture. Since it contains a large number of the same high towers, reminiscent of dungeons and a chess piece, a rook with numerous toothed-rectangular slabs. And on top of that, such elongated buildings have windows. This is one of the most beautiful castles in Europe, although not very large in size. It looks more like a huge mansion than a large palace. From the inside, the architecture contains 140 rooms, 11 towers and 2 rectangular courtyards. Outside, the white castle is decorated with skilful carvings of various figures, deer heads and hanging, antique lanterns.

Castles of Slovakia

Castles of Slovakia... The construction of Slovak castles began in XI century, but most of them were built in XIII century... The most outstanding of them are Bitchyansky Grad, Boinitsky, Bratislava Castle, Budatinsky, Zvolensky, Orava Castle, Smolenitsky, Spishsky Grad and Trenchyansky Castle locks. Architectures are inherently diverse in design. The size also varies in large and small shapes. The roofs of large castles stretch enormous dimensions with polygonal shapes. The towers have elongated, acute-angled ends with thin, long, spherical spokes. Windows are located rather less frequently than in other state castles, but most often they are numerous in small buildings. In some architectures, you can find convex, perforated cuts of stripes, which are an additional decoration, emphasizing a pronounced design. Mostly they can be seen at the rounded ends of elongated cylinders. Some castles in Slovakia have small balconies. They contain arched windows and vertical railings. Protective, defensive walls near the buildings are practically absent. They can be found only near the mountain structures of the hills.

The most impressive and unique in structure castles of Slovakia- this is Bratislava Castle (square shape and towers located at each corner), Orava Castle (built with gradually rising foundations) , Trechiansky Castle (with a huge, powerful tower in the center), Zvolensky (with square-toothed slabs on their roof) and Smolenitsky (owning three prominent roofs in the middle, green and red) locks.

Castles of england

Castles of england... Many castles in England were built in XI century, but most of them today are in a dilapidated state. The main distinguishing feature is solid rectangular towers, which consisted of narrow, elongated buildings. Their roofs are covered with jagged square slabs that can extend around the entire perimeter surrounding the architecture. Only a few structures have triangular and conical tops. If there are any, then such tips form a continuous row of acute-angled limbs in some raised row. For beauty, many of the architectures were treated with long, elongated pits around the entire circumference of the towers. this appearance emphasizes the unusual originality of the English castles. Another unusual feature is the presence of large and large windows in the walls that look more like a semi-palace structure. Sometimes elongated windows are located in wide arched arches, which additionally emphasize an extraordinary style. In many, even in small, square castles, the British designed and strengthened dial clocks with melodic chimes. To this day, they attach great importance to the exact time in their upbringing and culture.

England is a huge island, which means that it primarily needed the defense of coastal territories and a powerful fleet. Perhaps that is why her castles did not have a particularly reliable and protected architecture of the building from enemies.

Castles of Austria

Castles of Austria laid the foundation of their structure in VIII-IX centuries last millennium. The most famous of them are Artstetten, Gochosterwitz, Graz, Landskron, Rosenburg, Schattenburg, Hohenwerfen and Ehrenberg... Their main characteristic feature is high and very thick, rectangular towers with huge triangular and polygonal domed roofs. Too wide side surfaces are due to the fact that the buildings of high castles have many floors, which means that this requires a full climb up a spacious spiral staircase. At the highest height, at the base of the sharp pins, the builders placed artificial sculptures of various figures in the form of angels with wings. Near high foundations in architectural buildings, additional convex structures are sometimes added in the form of patterns and dimples that run along the perimeter or circle. Some types of castles have a railing with a varied vertical structure at the top. The architecture of the huge roofs is complemented by small, sharp-angled turrets, not constructed very far from each other. They also show attic windows and an exit to the upper part of the ceiling. The windows are small in size and oval and square. In some places, the side walls of the towers are decorated with healthy, arched glass with patterns.
Some castles served not only as a home and defense for a noble society, but soon turned into a prison, barracks, museum and even a restaurant. Schattenburg Castle is one such example.

Castles of Italy

Castles of Italy... Most of the castles in Italy began to be erected in X-XI century second millennium. The most famous of them are Aragonese (Ischia), Balsigliano, Bari, Carbonara, Castello Maniace, Corigliano, Holy Angel, San Leo, Sforza, Otranto,Ursino and Estense.

The huge, thick width of the walls and the healthy circumference of the towers are the main distinguishing features of Italian castles. They are primitive and absolutely simple for the analyzing view of a traveler or tourist. Judging by their appearance, many of their types are very well adapted for defensive defense against enemies. The watchtowers are high enough in the central parts of the castle architecture. They have many windows and a significantly convex protrusion in relation to the lower part of the stone tower.
The square tops of the walls have tendril-shaped cuts, thereby significantly emphasizing the uniqueness of other state castles. Under the toothed-rectangular slabs of Italian castles, there are numerous, pronounced oval depressions that stretch across the entire width of rectangular and round stone towers. On some architectures, you can also notice the presence of balconies with vertical, white railings on them. The doorways in the lower parts of the castle have huge, arched shapes. This is most likely due to the fact that in case of alarm, the defenders of the castle do not crowd, but fully run out in large detachments from their barracks. Similar factors include the presence of signal bell towers in the tops of the towers. The construction of castles and fortresses in Italy was conceived by a militarized plan of noble rulers and their architects.

Castles of Poland

Castles of Poland... The most intensive growth in the construction of Polish castles belongs to 1200-1700 biennium... second millennium. The most outstanding of them are Grodno, Kschenzh, Kurnitsky, Krasitsky, Lenchitsky, Lublinsky, Marienburg, Stettinsky and Khentinsky. In terms of their structure, they have a variety of designs in large and small sizes. Most of the castles have a palace appearance and only a small part of them have serious defensive architecture. Polish castles are characterized by long, curvy domes, shaped like a chess piece of an elephant or an umbrella-shaped projection. These also include huge trapeze-like roofs that extend across the entire width of the architectural top. Small, acute-angled towers contain bell towers, while large ones have rectangular windows for sentinel observation. The windows in the side parts of the walls are of various shapes, but most of them are rectangular and arched, as are their arched frames, emphasizing the peculiar appearance.

Architectural style Poland is quite unique. The buildings were erected from the Donjon style to the Gothic Revival. This rather elegant type of building structure includes Kurnicki castle, very nice external design.
Some types of castles are so tiny that they more resemble a small mansion rather than a heavily defensive fortress. An example is Shimbark castle... And if you compare him with such a giant as Marienburg, then the first will seem like an absolute highlight compared to the brute.

The exterior of the architecture was of the Gothic and Renaissance style. But all Belarusian locks have a different design, which is peculiarly different from each other. The largest of them is Mir Castle... Its main distinguishing feature is its large size and the presence of defensive walls. They contain a series of small windows (loopholes) designed for masked observation and protection of the castle. The entire architecture consists mainly of red brick, covering the entire perimeter of the building. Rectangular windows and loopholes are framed in white, arched frames. The roofs have a triangular shape on the tips of the spokes of which there are patterns of balls and flags. The entrance to the inside is carried out by means of oval arches located in several parts of the castle.
Gomel castle was also quite large in area, but consisted of separate buildings and a very low defensive wall. On it were small towers with worn oval domes. Rather, this architecture resembled more a monastery of separately standing structures than a castle for protection. The tall towers had pointed, black roofs with a variety of shapes. Even a separate chimney on the roof had a peculiar, colorful pattern.

At first, buildings were erected from wood, but with the advent of firearms, a much stronger material, such as stone, was needed. The solid fortifications held back the onslaught of bullets and arson much better.
Castles were built on heights, filling artificial hills and lining them with hewn stone. For the reliability of the fortifications, strategically tricky areas with seas and lakes were chosen. Sometimes the defense was supplemented with deep ditches with water, to further isolate land penetration into buildings. The many courtyards in the castle made it difficult for the enemy to reach the main tower. To get close to her, the attackers had to wander through them for a long time, like a maze, in search of a way out. It was easy to get lost. Some castles served as barracks for samurai warriors, erected by the daimyo - the owners of the provinces on the site of small fortresses. Such buildings could be constructed in cities and serve as fortified, administrative centers.
The appearance of Japanese castles resembled solid, upwardly curved, layered blocks of roofs, superimposed one on top of the other. Outside, they looked rather primitive and were very similar to each other. But the interior was attractive and varied. At the very top of the towers there was a tall, carved pediment of the castle - a sign of the power of its owner. The roofs were multi-tiered, like those of a pagoda, with wide slopes. Their surfaces were faced with wooden shingles. The outer walls were plastered and covered in white. Their side covers had slit windows and loopholes. The lower floors were faced with stone slabs.
Sometimes there were several towers in the castle, and the defenders fired at the enemy from different directions. Often a one-story tower was erected above the gate. And in the very center of the castle there was a multi-tiered main tower, erected on a mound. Later, the base of the tower was covered with stone, while other parts remained wooden. To reduce the risk of fire, the walls were covered with a thick layer of plaster, and the gates were bound with iron plates. The towers served simultaneously as headquarters, observation tower and huge warehouses. The owner's quarters were located on the upper floors. Wooden buildings could make up a combination of hallways, rooms, huts, corridors and towers with numerous rooms taken together. Most often, only noble princes, nobles and boyars could afford such luxurious dwellings. Their rooms were located on the highest floors. Below, there were rooms for servants and subjects.
The mansions were subdivided into resting , non-combatants and outbuildings ... Premises resting architectures had a separate dwelling, in one of which the owner lived, and in the other his wife and children. Their rooms were connected by common corridors, with the help of which it was possible to enter the right room. Restless mansions served for meetings, solemn events and holidays. They built huge halls for a large number to the people. Household mansions used for everyday needs in crafts and households. They looked like stables, barns, laundries, and workshops.

Has led to a boom in castle construction, but the process of building a fortress from scratch is far from easy.

Bodiam Castle in East Sussex, founded in 1385

1) Carefully choose a place to build

Castles were usually erected on natural elevations, and were usually equipped with a link to the external environment, such as a ford, bridge or passage.

Historians have rarely been able to find evidence of contemporaries regarding the choice of the site for the construction of the castle, but they still exist. On September 30, 1223, 15-year-old King Henry III arrived in Montgomery with his army. The king, who successfully conducted a military campaign against the Welsh prince Llywelyn ap Yorvert, was going to build a new castle in this area to ensure security on the border of his possessions. The English carpenters were given the task of preparing the timber a month earlier, but the king's advisers had only now determined the place for the construction of the castle.



Montgomery Castle, when it began to be built in 1223, was located on a hill

After a careful survey of the area, they chose a point at the very edge of the ledge above the Severn Valley. According to chronicler Roger Wendoverki, this position "looked impregnable to anyone." He also noted that the castle was created "for the safety of the region from the frequent attacks of the Welsh."

Advice: identify places where topography rises above transport routes: these are natural locations for castles. Keep in mind that the design of the castle is determined by the place of construction. For example, a castle will have a dry moat on a ledge of exposed rock.

2) Have a workable plan

Experienced soldiers may have their own ideas for the design of the castle, in terms of the shape of its buildings and their location. But they are unlikely to have knowledge of the level of specialists in design and construction.

To implement the idea required a master mason - an experienced builder, whose hallmark was the ability to draw a plan. Understanding practical geometry, he used simple tools such as a ruler, square, and compasses to create architectural plans. The master masons presented the drawing with the building plan for approval, and during the construction they supervised its construction.

When Edward II ordered the tower to be built at Narsborough, he personally approved plans and demanded construction reports.

When Edward II began in 1307 to build a huge residential tower at Narsborough Castle in Yorkshire for his favorite Pierce Gaveston, he not only personally approved the plan drawn up by the London master mason Hugh Tichmarshevsky - probably drawn in the form of a drawing - but also required regular construction reports. ... From the mid-16th century onward, a new group of professionals called engineers increasingly began to take on a role in the development of plans and the construction of fortifications. They had the technical knowledge of the use and power of cannons, both for defense and for attacking castles.

Advice: Plan loopholes for a wide angle of attack. Shape them according to the weapon you use: archers with large bows need larger slopes, crossbowmen need smaller ones.

3) Hire a large group of experienced workers

Great efforts were required to build the castle. We do not have documentary evidence of the construction of the first castles in England since 1066, but from the scale of many castles of that period it becomes clear why some chronicles claim that the British were under the yoke of building castles for their Norman conquerors. But from the later time of the Middle Ages, some estimates with detailed information have come down to us.

During the invasion of Wales in 1277, King Edward I began building a castle in Flint, northeastern Wales. It was erected quickly, thanks to the rich resources of the crown. A month after the start of work, in August, 2,300 people were involved in the construction, including 1270 excavators, 320 woodcutters, 330 carpenters, 200 masons, 12 blacksmiths and 10 coal burners. All of them were driven from the surrounding lands under an armed escort, who made sure that they did not defect from the construction.

Periodically, foreign specialists could be involved in the construction. For example, millions of bricks for the rebuilding of Tattershall Castle in Lincolnshire in the 1440s were installed by a certain Baldwin "Docheman", or Dutchman, that is, "Dutchman" - obviously a foreigner.

Advice: depending on the size of the workforce and the distance it has traveled, it may be necessary to provide them with accommodation at the construction site.

4) Ensure the safety of the construction site

To build a castle on enemy territory, you need to defend the construction site from attacks. For example, you can enclose a construction site with wooden fortifications or a low stone wall. Such medieval defense systems sometimes remained after the construction of the building as an additional wall - for example, in the Bomaris castle, the construction of which began in 1295.

Bomaris (English Beaumaris, Wall. Biwmares) is a city on the island of Anglesey, Wales.

Safe communication with the outside world is also important for the delivery of building materials and provisions. In 1277, Edward I dug a canal to the Kluid River directly from the sea and to the site of his new castle in Rüdlan. The outer wall, built to protect the construction site, extended to the quays on the banks of the river.

Rüdlan castle

Security problems can also arise during a radical reconstruction of an existing castle. When Henry II rebuilt Dover Castle in the 1180s, the work was carefully planned so that the fortifications would provide protection for the duration of the renovation. According to the surviving decrees, work on the inner wall of the castle began only when the tower had already been sufficiently repaired so that a guard could be on duty in it.

Advice: Building materials for the construction of the castle are large and voluminous. If possible, it is best to transport them by water, even if it requires building a dock or canal.

5) Prepare the landscape

It is often forgotten that the fortifications of the castle were built not only at the expense of architectural techniques, but also at the expense of landscape design. Huge resources were allocated to move land. The scale of the Normans' earthworks can be considered outstanding. For example, according to some estimates, the embankment erected in 1100 around Pleshi Castle in Essex took 24,000 man-days.

Some aspects of the landscape work required serious skills, especially the creation of ditches. When Edward I rebuilt the Tower of London in the 1270s, he hired a foreign expert, Walter Flandersky, to create a huge tidal ditch. Ditching under his direction cost £ 4,000, a staggering amount, almost a quarter of the cost of the entire project.

An 18th century engraving of the Tower of London plan from 1597 shows how much land had to be moved to build ditches and ramparts.

With the increasing role of cannons in the art of siege, the earth began to play an even more important role as an absorber of cannon shots. Interestingly, experience in moving large amounts of land has allowed some fortification engineers to find work as a garden designer.

Advice: Reduce time and costs by digging masonry for the castle walls from the moats around it.

6) lay the foundation

By using ropes of the correct length and pegs it was possible to mark the foundation of a building on the ground in full size. After the foundation ditches were dug, work began on the masonry. To save money, the responsibility for the construction was assigned to the senior bricklayer instead of the master bricklayer. In the Middle Ages, clutches were usually measured in childbirth, one English genus = 5.03 m. In Workworth, Northumberland, one of the complex bachets stands on a lattice from the clans, possibly for the purpose of calculating construction costs.

Warkworth Castle

Often the construction of medieval castles was accompanied by detailed documentation. In 1441-42 the tower of Tatbury Castle in Staffordshire was destroyed and a plan for its successor was drawn up on the ground. But the Prince of Stafford, for some reason, was dissatisfied. The king's master mason, Robert of Westerley, was sent to Tatbury, where he held a meeting with two senior masons to design a new tower at a new location. Westerley then left, and over the next eight years, a small group of workers, including four junior bricklayers, built the new tower.

Senior masons could be recruited to validate the quality of the work, as was the case at Cooling Castle in Kent when the royal mason Heinrich Hewel evaluated the work carried out from 1381 to 1384. He criticized deviations from the original plan and rounded down the estimate.

Advice: don't be fooled by the master mason. Get him to make a plan that makes it easy to budget.

7) fortify your castle

Until the 12th century, the fortifications of most castles consisted of earth and logs. And although later the preference was given to stone buildings, wood remained a very important material in medieval wars and fortifications.

Stone castles were prepared for attacks by adding special battle galleries along the walls, as well as shutters that could close the gaps between the battlements to protect the defenders of the castle. All this was made of wood. Heavy weapons used to defend the castle, catapults and heavy crossbows, springalds were also built of wood. The artillery was usually developed by a highly paid professional carpenter, sometimes bore the title of engineer, from the Latin "ingeniator".

Storming the castle, drawing of the 15th century

Such experts were not cheap, but could cost their weight in gold as a result. This, for example, happened in 1266, when Kenilworth Castle in Warwickshire resisted Henry III for almost six months with catapults and water defenses.

There are records of camp castles made entirely of wood - they could be transported with you and erected as needed. One such was built for the French invasion of England in 1386, but the Calais garrison captured it along with the ship. It was described as consisting of a wall of logs 20 feet high and 3,000 paces long. Every 12 steps, there was a 30-foot tower capable of sheltering up to 10 soldiers, and the castle also had unspecified protection for riflemen.

Advice: Oak wood gets stronger over the years and is easiest to work with when it is green. The upper branches of the trees are easy to transport and shape.

8) Provide water and drainage

The most important aspect for the castle was efficient access to water. These could be wells that supply water to certain buildings, for example, a kitchen or a stable. Without a detailed acquaintance with the medieval well mines, it is difficult to give them their due. For example, Beeston Castle in Cheshire has a well 100 m deep, the top 60 m of which is lined with hewn stone.

There is some evidence that complex plumbing systems existed to bring water to the apartment. The tower of Dover Castle has a lead pipe system that brings water to the rooms. She was fed from a well with a winch, and possibly from a rainwater collection system.

Effective disposal of human waste was another challenge for lock designers. Lavatories were collected in one place of buildings so that their shafts were emptied in one place. They were housed in short corridors that trapped unpleasant odors, and were often equipped with wooden seats and removable covers.

Thought room at Chipchase Castle

It is now widely believed that toilets used to be called "wardrobes." In fact, the vocabulary for toilets was vast and colorful. They were called gongs or gangs (from the Anglo-Saxon word for "place to go"), nooks and crannies and jakes (French for "john").

Advice: Ask a master mason to plan out comfortable and secluded latrines outside the bedroom, following the example of Henry II and Dover Castle.

9) Decorate as needed

During the war, the castle must be protected - but it also serves as a luxurious home. The noble gentlemen of the Middle Ages expected their dwelling to be both comfortable and richly furnished. In the Middle Ages, these citizens traveled with servants, things and furniture from one residence to another. But home interiors often had fixed decorative features such as stained glass windows.

The tastes of Henry III in the setting are recorded very carefully, with interesting and attractive details. In 1235-36, for example, he ordered that his hall at Winchester Castle be decorated with images of the world map and the wheel of fortune. Since then, these decorations have not survived, but the well-known King Arthur Round Table, created possibly between 1250 and 1280, remains in the interior.

Winchester Castle with King Arthur's round table hanging on the wall

The large area of ​​the castles played an important role in the luxurious life. The parks were created for hunting, a jealously guarded privilege of the aristocrats; gardens were also in demand. The surviving description of the construction of Kirby Maxloe Castle in Leicestershire says that its owner, Lord Hastings, began to lay out the gardens at the very beginning of the castle's construction in 1480.

In the Middle Ages, they also loved rooms with beautiful views... One of the thirteenth-century groups of rooms in the castles of Leeds in Kent, Corfe in Dorset and Chepstow in Monmotshire was named gloriettes (from the French gloriette - diminutive of glory) for their magnificence.

Advice: The interior of the castle should be luxurious enough to attract visitors and friends. Entertainment can win battles without having to expose oneself to the dangers of combat.