Central America Maya and Aztecs. Pre-Columbian civilizations of America (Maya, Aztecs and Incas). The most famous pyramids of the Aztecs

Maya Restless and agile. She is sociable and capable of many things. The character is usually with temper. Without much worries, he will come into conflict in order to defend his

Maya We lived, and still live, in an illusory world in which no one knows who is who, and when talking with a certain person, we cannot be sure whether we are talking with him, the real one, or with someone who doesn't exist at all. Today, the mystery of copying

Maya This Sanskrit word has many meanings. One of its meanings is "energy". Maya yoga is the spiritual energy that sustains the transcendental manifestation of Vaikuntha, the spiritual world, while its reflection, maha-maya, is the energy of the material world.

By the time Columbus "discovered" America (1492), it was inhabited by many Indian tribes and ethnic groups, most of which were in the primitive stage of development. However, some of them, who lived in Mesoamerica (Central America) and the Andes ( South America), reached the level of highly developed ancient civilizations, although they lagged far behind Europe: the latter by that time was experiencing the heyday of the Renaissance.

The meeting of two worlds, two cultures and civilizations had different consequences for the sides that met. Europe borrowed many of the achievements of Indian civilizations, in particular, it was thanks to America that Europeans began to use potatoes, tomatoes, corn, beans, tobacco, cocoa, and quinine. On the whole, after the discovery of the New World, the development of Europe accelerated significantly. The fate of ancient American cultures and civilizations was completely different: the development of some of them actually stopped, and many disappeared altogether from the face of the earth.

The available scientific evidence indicates that the American continent did not have its own centers of formation the oldest man... The settlement of this continent by people began in the late Paleolithic era - about 30-20 thousand years ago - and went from Northeast Asia through the Bering Strait and Alaska. The further evolution of the emerging communities went through all known stages and had both similarities and differences from other continents.

An example of a highly developed primitive culture of the New World is the so-called Olmec culture, existed on south coast Gulf of Mexico in the 1st millennium BC Much remains unclear and mysterious about this culture. In particular, the specific ethnos is not known - the bearer (the name "Olmek" is conditional) of this culture, the general territory of its distribution, as well as the peculiarities of the social structure, etc. are not determined.

Nevertheless, the available archaeological evidence suggests that in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. The tribes inhabiting Verescus and Tabasco reached a high level of development. They have the first "ritual centers", they build pyramids from adobe and clay, erect monuments of monumental sculpture. An example of such monuments were huge anthropomorphic heads weighing up to 20 tons. Relief carving on basalt and jade, the manufacture of axes-Celts, masks and figurines are widespread. In the 1st century. BC. the first examples of writing and calendar appear. Similar cultures existed in other parts of the continent.

Ancient cultures and civilizations took shape by the end of the 1st millennium BC. and existed until the 16th century. AD - before the arrival of the Europeans. In their evolution, two periods are usually distinguished: early, or classical (1st millennium AD), and late, or postclassical (X-XVI centuries AD).

Among the most significant cultures of Mesoamerica of the classical period are teotihuacan. originated in Central Mexico. The surviving ruins of Teotihuacan - the capital of the civilization of the same name - indicate that it was a political, economic and Cultural Center throughout Mesoamerica with a population of 60-120 thousand people. Crafts and trade developed most successfully there. Archaeologists have discovered about 500 craft workshops in the city, whole neighborhoods of foreign merchants and "diplomats". Crafts are found almost throughout Central America.

It is noteworthy that almost the entire city was a kind of architectural monument. Its center was carefully planned around two wide streets intersecting at right angles: from north to south - the Road of the Dead avenue over 5 km long, and from west to east - an unnamed avenue up to 4 km long.

At the northern end of the Road of the Dead, there is a huge silhouette of the Pyramid of the Moon (height 42 m), made of raw bricks and faced with volcanic stone. On the other side of the avenue, there is an even more grandiose structure - the Pyramid of the Sun (height 64.5 m), at the top of which a temple once stood. The intersection of the avenues is occupied by the palace of the ruler of Teotihuacan - "Citadel", which is a complex of buildings, which included the temple god Quetzalcoatl - Feathered Serpent, one of the main deities, the patron saint of culture and knowledge, the god of air and wind. From the temple, only its pyramidal base has survived, consisting of six diminishing stone platforms, as if placed on top of each other. Facade of the pyramid and balustrade front staircase decorated with the sculptural heads of Quetzalcoatl himself and the god of water and rain Tlaloc in the form of a butterfly.

Along the Road of the Dead are the remains of dozens of temples and palaces. Among them is the beautiful Quetzalpapalotl Palace, reconstructed today, or the Palace of the Feathered Snail, the walls of which are decorated with fresco paintings. There are also excellent examples of such painting in the Temple of Agriculture, which depicts gods, people and animals. The original monuments of the culture under consideration are anthropomorphic masks made of stone and clay. In the III-VII centuries. ceramics - cylindrical vessels with picturesque paintings or carved ornaments - and terracotta figurines are becoming widespread.

The culture of Teotihuacan reached its highest flowering by the beginning of the 7th century. AD However, already at the end of the same century a beautiful city suddenly dies, destroyed by a gigantic fire. The causes of this catastrophe are still unclear - most likely as a result of the invasion of the militant barbarian tribes of Northern Mexico.

Aztec culture

After the death of Teotihuacan, Central Mexico plunged into troubled times of interethnic wars and strife for a long time. As a result of repeated mixing of local tribes with newcomers - first with the Chichemeks, and then with the tenochka-pharmacies - the capital of the Aztecs was founded in 1325 on the desert islands of Lake Texcoco. Tenochtitlan. The emerging city-state grew rapidly and by the beginning of the 16th century. became one of the most powerful powers in America - the famous the empire of the aztecs with a huge territory and a population of 5-6 million people. Its borders stretched from northern Mexico to Guatemala and from the Pacific coast to the Gulf of Mexico.

The capital itself - Tenochtitlan - has become a large city with a population of 120-300 thousand inhabitants. This island city was connected to the mainland by three wide stone dam roads. According to eyewitnesses, the Aztec capital was a beautiful, well-planned city. Its ritual and administrative center was a magnificent architectural ensemble, which included a walled "sacred area", inside which were located the main city temples, dwellings of priests, schools, a square for ritual ball games. There were at least magnificent palaces rulers of the Aztecs.

The basis the economy the Aztecs were agriculture, and the main cultivated crop was corn. It should be emphasized that it was the Aztecs who were the first to grow cocoa beans and tomatoes; they are the authors of the word "tomatoes". Many crafts were at a high level, especially chasing for gold. When the great Albrecht Durer saw Aztec gold items in 1520, he declared: "Never in my life have I seen anything that thrills me as deeply as these objects."

The highest level reached spiritual culture of the Aztecs. This was largely facilitated by effective education system, which included two types of schools in which the male population is trained. In schools of the first type, boys from the upper stratum were brought up, who were to become a priest, dignitary or military leader. Boys from ordinary families studied in schools of the second type, where they were trained for agricultural work, crafts and military affairs. School was compulsory.

The system of religious and mythological representations and cults the Aztecs was quite complex. At the origins of the pantheon were the progenitors - the creator god Ome flow aphids and his divine consort. Among the acting, the main deity was the god of the sun and war. Huitzilopochtli. War was a form of worship of this god and was elevated to a cult. A special place was occupied by the god Sinteoble - the patron saint of corn fertility. Lord Quetzalcoatl was the protector of the priests.

The god of trade and the patron saint of merchants was Yakatekuhali. In general, there were many gods. Suffice it to say that every month and every day of the year had their own god.

Developed very successfully . It was based on philosophy, which was studied by highly respected sages. Leading science was astronomy. Aztec stargazers were free to orientate themselves in the starry picture of the sky. Meeting the needs Agriculture, they developed a fairly accurate calendar. taking into account the position and movement of stars in the sky.

The Aztecs created a highly developed artistic culture. Among the arts, she achieved significant success literature. Aztec writers created didactic treatises, dramatic and prose works. The leading position was occupied by poetry, which included several genres: war poems, poems about flowers, spring songs. The most successful were religious verses and hymns, which were sung in honor of the main gods of the Aztecs.

Developed no less successfully architecture. In addition to the above-mentioned beautiful ensembles and palaces of the capital, magnificent architectural monuments were created in other cities. However, almost all of them were destroyed by the Spanish conquistadors. Among the amazing creations is the recently discovered temple at Malinalco. This temple, which took the form of a traditional Aztec pyramid, is notable for the fact. that he was all carved right into the rock. If we consider that the Aztecs used only stone tools, then one can imagine what gigantic efforts were required to build this temple.

In the 1980s, as a result of earthquakes, earthworks and excavations in the very center of Mexico City, the Main Temple of the Aztecs was opened - Templo Major. The sanctuaries of the chief god Huitzilopochtli and the god of water and rain, the patron saint of agriculture, Tlaloc, have also been uncovered. Remains of wall paintings and stone sculptures were found. Among those found, a round stone with a diameter of more than 3 m with a bas-relief image of the goddess Koyol-shauhki, sister of Huitzilopochtli, stands out. Stone figures of gods, corals, shells, ceramics, necklaces, etc. have been preserved in deep pit-caches.

The culture and civilization of the Aztecs reached the highest flowering at the beginning of the 16th century. However, this bloom soon came to an end. The Spaniards captured Tenochti glan in 1521. The city was destroyed, and a new city, Mexico City, arose on its ruins, which became the center of the colonial possessions of the European conquerors.

Mayan civilization

The culture and civilization of the Maya became another amazing phenomenon of pre-Columbian America that existed in the 1st-15th centuries. AD in southeastern Mexico, Honduras and Guatemala. The modern explorer of this region G. Lehman called the Maya "the most fascinating of all the civilizations of ancient America."

Indeed, everything related to the Maya is shrouded in mystery and mystery. Their origin remains a mystery. The mystery is their choice of the place of settlement - the rugged jungles of Mexico. At the same time, the ups and downs in their subsequent development seem to be a mystery and a miracle.

In the classical period (I-IX centuries AD), the development of the Mayan civilization and culture is steep ascending. Already in the first centuries of our era, they reach the highest level and amazing perfection in architecture, sculpture and painting. The emerging large and populous cities become centers of handicraft production, marked by a real flourishing of painted ceramics. At this time, the Maya create the only developed in America hieroglyphic writing, as evidenced by the inscriptions on the steles, reliefs, objects of small plastic. The Maya compiled an accurate solar calendar, successfully predicting solar and lunar eclipses.

The main view of the monumental architecture there was a pyramidal temple, installed on a high pyramid - up to 70 m. If we consider that the entire building was erected on high pyramidal hills, then one can imagine how majestic and grandiose the whole structure looks. This is how the Temple of the Inscriptions in Palenque appears, which served as the tomb of the ruler like the pyramids. Ancient egypt... The entire structure was covered with hieroglyphic relief inscriptions that adorn the walls, the crypt, the lid of the sarcophagus and other objects. A steep staircase with several platforms leads to the temple. In the city there are three more pyramids with the temples of the Sun, the Cross and the Deciduous Cross, as well as a palace with a five-story square tower, which apparently served as an observatory: on the top floor there is a stone bench on which the astrologer sat, peering into the distant sky. The walls of the palace are also decorated with reliefs depicting prisoners of war.

In the VI-IX centuries. the highest successes are achieved monumental sculpture and Mayan painting. The sculptural schools of Palenque, Copan and other cities achieve a rare skill and subtlety in conveying the natural poses and movements of the characters depicted, which are usually the rulers, dignitaries and warriors. Small plastics, especially small figurines, are also remarkable for their amazing craftsmanship.

The surviving examples of Mayan painting amaze with the elegance of the pattern and the richness of color. The famous Bonampak frescoes are recognized masterpieces of pictorial art. They talk about military battles, depict ceremonies, complex rituals of sacrifice, graceful dances, etc.

In the 1X-X centuries. most of the Mayan cities were destroyed by the invading Toltec tribes, but in the XI century. Mayan culture was revived again in the Yucatan Peninsula and in the mountains of Guatemala. Its main centers are the cities of Chichen Itza, Uxmal and Mayapan.

Still developing most successfully architecture. One of the wonderful architectural monuments post-classical period is the pyramid of Kukulkan - "Feathered Serpent" in Chichen Itza. To the top of the nine-step pyramid, where the temple is located, there are four staircases, bordered by a balustrade, which at the bottom begins with a beautifully executed snake's head and in the form of a snake body continues to the upper floor. The pyramid symbolizes the calendar, for the 365 steps of its stairs correspond to the number of days in a year. In addition, it is notable for the fact that inside it there is another nine-step pyramid, in which there is a sanctuary, and in it there is an amazing stone throne depicting a jaguar.

The pyramid "Temple of the Magician" in Uxmal is also very original. It differs from all others in that it has an oval shape in a horizontal projection.

By the middle of the 15th century. the Maya culture is entering a severe crisis and declining. When the Spanish conquerors entered at the beginning of the XVI century. to the Mayan cities, many of them were abandoned by their inhabitants. The reasons for such an unexpected and sad ending of a flourishing culture and civilization remain a mystery.

Ancient civilizations of South America. Inca culture

In South America, almost simultaneously with the Olmec civilization of Mesoamerica, at the end of the 2nd millennium BC, in the mountains of the northeastern region of Peru, a no less mysterious Chavin culture, similar to the Olmec, although not related to it.

At the turn of our era in the northern part of the coastal zone of Peru appears civilization Mochica, and in the south - Nazca civilization. Somewhat later, in the mountains of northern Bolivia, an original Tiahuanaco culture. These civilizations of South America were in some respects inferior to the cultures of Mesoamsrica: they did not have hieroglyphic writing, an accurate calendar, etc. But in many other ways - especially in technology - they were superior to Mesoamerica. Already from the II millennium BC. the Indians of Peru and Bolivia smelted metals, processed gold, silver, copper and their alloys and made from them not only fine jewelry, but also tools of labor - shovels and hoes. They had developed agriculture, built magnificent temples, created monumental sculptures, and made wonderful ceramic items with polychrome painting. Their fine fabrics made of cotton and wool have become widely known. In the 1st millennium A.D. the production of metal products, ceramics and fabrics reached a large and high level, and it was this that constituted the unique originality of the South American civilizations of the classical period.

The post-classical period (X-XVI centuries AD) is marked by the emergence and disappearance of many states in both the mountainous and coastal zones of South America. In the XIV century. the Incas create in the mountainous zone the state of Tahuatin-suyu, which, after long wars with neighboring small states, manages to emerge victorious and subjugate all the others.

In the XV century. it turns to the giant and famous Inca Empire with a huge territory and a population of about 6 million people. At the head of a huge power was a divine ruler, the son of the Inca Sun, who relied on the hereditary aristocracy and the caste of priests.

The basis the economy was agriculture, the main crops of which were corn, potatoes, beans, red pepper. The Inca state was distinguished by an effective organization of public works, called "mita". Mita meant the obligation of all subjects of the empire to work one month a year on the construction of state facilities. It made it possible to gather tens of thousands of people in one place, thanks to which irrigation canals, fortresses, roads, bridges, etc. were built in a short time.

From north to south, the Land of the Incas is crossed by two parallel roads. one of which was more than 5 thousand km long. These highways connected to each other large quantity cross roads, which create an excellent communications network. Along the roads, at certain distances, there were post stations, warehouses with products and necessary materials. There was a state post office in Gauatinsuyu.

Spiritual and religious life and questions of the cult were in the jurisdiction of the priests. The supreme deity was considered Viracocha - Creator of the world and the rest of the gods. Other deities were the god of the golden Sun, Inti. god of weather, thunder and lightning Ilyp. A special place was occupied by the ancient cults of the mother of the Earth Mama Pacha and the mother of the sea Mama (Sochi. The worship of the gods took place in stone temples decorated with gold inside.

Regulated all aspects of life, including personal life citizens of the empire. All Incas, up to a certain age, had to marry. If this did not happen, then this issue was decided by a state official at his own discretion, and his decision was binding.

Although the Incas did not have a real written language, this did not stop them from creating beautiful myths, legends, epic poems, religious hymns, as well as dramatic works. Unfortunately, little of this spiritual wealth has survived.

Of the highest flowering the culture the Incas reached at the beginning Xvi v. However, this prosperity did not last long. In 1532, the most powerful empire of pre-Columbian America submitted almost without resistance to the Europeans. A small group of Spanish conquerors led by Francisco Pizarro managed to kill the Inca Atahualpa, which paralyzed the will to resist his people, and great empire the Inca ceased to exist.

A little more than ten years ago, on October 12, 1992, one of the most significant dates in the history of mankind was celebrated on planet Earth - the 500th anniversary of the discovery of America. There are many hypotheses about when in the Western Hemisphere, in the Americas, on numerous islands, a man appeared and when people came to the American continent. For the fifth century (since the 16th century), scholars have been debating this issue. In numerous studies on this topic, among the first inhabitants of America, they call Canary Islands, Phoenicians and Carthaginians, ancient Greeks and Romans, Jews, Spaniards, Egyptians and Babylonians, Chinese and even Tatars and Scythians.

Science developed, and as new discoveries accumulated knowledge, there was a selection of hypotheses. Today there is no longer any doubt that the part of the world, designated on the world map as America, was inhabited by immigrants from other continents. However, with which ones - it has not been finally decided. Nevertheless, scientists were able to identify many common features inherent in all Indians, bringing them closer to the Mongoloid peoples of Asia. The appearance of the original inhabitants of America at the time of their first encounters with Europeans was as follows: a stocky figure, short legs, medium-sized feet, rather long but with small hands, a high and usually wide forehead, poorly developed brow ridges. The face of the Indian had a large, strongly protruding nose (often, especially in the north, the so-called aquiline), a rather large mouth. The eyes are usually dark brown. Hair is black, straight, thick.

In many of the first European documentary and literary sources, it was indicated that the Indians were red. In fact, this is not true. The skin of representatives of all kinds of Indian tribes is rather yellow-brown. According to modern researchers, the first settlers gave them the name "redskins". It did not arise by chance. The North American Indians once had the custom of rubbing their face and body with red ocher on solemn occasions. Therefore, the Europeans called them red.

Currently, anthropologists distinguish three main groups of Indians - North American, South American and Central American, whose representatives differ among themselves in height, skin color and other characteristics.

Most researchers believe that the settlement of the American continent came from Asia through the Bering Strait. Scientists believe that four great glaciers helped ancient people to overcome the water space. According to this hypothesis, during the glaciation, the Bering Strait froze and turned into a certain huge bridge... Asian tribes, who led a nomadic way of life, freely moved along it to the neighboring continent. Based on this, the time of the appearance of man on the American continent has been determined - this happened 10-30 thousand years ago.

By the time the Spanish caravels appeared under the command of Christopher Columbus, east coast New World (October 1492) North and South America, including the islands of the West Indies, was inhabited by many tribes and nationalities. With the light hand of the famous navigator, who assumed that he had discovered new lands in India, they began to be called Indians. These tribes were at different levels of development. According to most researchers, before the European conquest, the most developed civilizations of the Western Hemisphere were formed in Mesoamerica and the Andes. The term "Mesoamerica" ​​was introduced in the 40s of the XX century by the German scientist Paul Kirgoff. Since then, in archeology, the geographic region that includes Mexico and most Central America (up to the Nicoya Peninsula in Costa Rica). It was this territory that, at the time of its discovery by the Europeans, was inhabited by many Indian tribes and presented a different picture of the cultures they represented. According to the correct definition of the Czech Americanist Miloslav Stingl, "these cultures were at various stages of the development of a tribal society, and the general laws of evolution inherent in the primitive communal formation manifested themselves here in a multitude of local variants and forms." Among the brightest and most developed civilizations of Ancient America (pre-Columbian period), scientists include such cultures as Olmec, Teotihuacan, Mayan, Toltec and Aztec.

The study of the art of Ancient America, its history is comparatively young. It is a little over a hundred years old. Researchers-Americanists at the present time do not have such a rich material and achievements that are available today in the study of ancient art. They also experience great difficulties in connection with the fact that in order to support their conclusions obtained as a result of archaeological site and discoveries, do not have so many monuments of writing, which are, for example, at the disposal of researchers of the Ancient East. Among the ancient Americans, writing appeared much later and never reached a high level of development. The written monuments of the peoples of Mesoamerica that have come down to us have not yet been sufficiently studied. Therefore, most of the information regarding political history, social structure, mythology, conquests, titles and names of rulers is based only on Indian legends. Many of them were recorded after the Spanish conquest and date back to the first half of the 16th century. It is also important to remember that up to this time, ancient American civilizations developed without any influence from European or Asian centers. Until the 16th century, their development proceeded completely independently.

The art of Ancient America, like any other art, has a number of features and characteristics, inherent only in it. In order to comprehend this originality, a dialectical approach is necessary, taking into account the historical conditions under which the art and culture of the most ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica developed.

Scientists attribute the highest flowering of the culture of the Mayan Indian tribe to the 7th-8th centuries. The Aztec empire reached its apogee by the beginning of the 16th century. Very often in the works of archaeologists and researchers of ancient cultural civilizations, the Mayan Indian peoples (as older in age) are called by analogy "Greeks", and the Aztecs (as they existed later) - the "Romans" of the New World.

The cultural traditions of the Maya Indians had a huge impact on the Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and Salva Dor, as well as in several states of modern Mexico. The geographic boundaries of this civilization were 325,000 km2 and covered the habitat of several tens, and possibly hundreds of tribes. In general, the tribes inherited a single culture. However, in many respects it had, of course, regional features.

The Maya civilization stood out primarily for its achievements in construction and architecture. Representatives of this nation created exquisite and perfect works of painting and sculpture, had unique masters in stone processing and making ceramics. The Maya had a deep knowledge of astronomy and mathematics. Their greatest achievement is the introduction of such a mathematical concept as "zero". They began to use it hundreds of years earlier than other highly developed civilizations.

The Aztecs appeared in Central Mexico in the second half of the 12th century. Until this time, no historical data has been found about them. There are only a few legends and traditions from which it is known that they called the island Aztlan (Astlan) their homeland. One of the traditional descriptions of the supposed life of ancestors in Aztlan is known, allegedly compiled for the last of the pre-Hispanic rulers of the Aztec state, the famous Montezuma II the Younger, on the basis of ancient manuscripts. According to this source, the ancestral home of Aztlan was located on an island (or represented an island), where there was big mountain with caves that served as dwellings. From this word denoting the location of the island (Aztlan), the name of the tribe originated - the Aztecs (more precisely, the Astecs). However, science has not yet established the exact geographical position of this island.

In the earliest stages of their existence, the Aztecs were dominated by a nomadic lifestyle, they were mainly engaged in hunting. This left an imprint on their character. By their nature, they were very belligerent. For almost two centuries, the Az-Tecs waged wars of conquest and at the beginning of the XIV century, having conquered many other tribes that lived in Central Mexico, created a powerful empire. Around 1325, the city of Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City), which they founded, became its capital.

At present, interest in the study of the most ancient Indian civilizations has not faded away. Monuments of architecture, sculpture, jewelry, household items found in places where peoples with an original, unique culture lived several millennia ago, conceal a lot of unsolved. Learning the history of pre-Columbian America, the leading archaeologists and scientists of our time are trying to find an explanation for many of the most important aspects of the life of ancient human communities.