Scientists and travelers of antiquity were attracted by distant countries. Great Travelers: List, Discoveries, and Interesting Facts. Subscribe to the most interesting news of Volgograd

Introduction

1 the great travelers of antiquity

1.1 Travelers Ancient Greece

1.1 Herodotus

1.3 Eudoxus

1.4 Alexander the Great

1.5 Strabo

1.2 Travelers of Ancient Rome

1.2.1 Enei (mythology)

2.2 Apostle Paul

2.3 Pausanias

2.4 Hippalus

Conclusion

Introduction

People have traveled at all times. As mankind developed, it discovered new lands, improved means of transportation. There is practically no culture in which the history of travel has not been intertwined.

It is impossible to imagine the development of human civilization without travel. Thanks to travel, there was an opportunity to make contact with other peoples, to overcome the isolation of their culture. In other words, travel is the main vehicle for the dissemination and interpenetration of cultures.

Among scientists who study the cultures of different peoples, there are those who believe that the similarity of cultures on different continents is associated with the travels of ancient people. These scholars believe that the history of world culture depends on the "traveling man".

That is why the study of the history of ancient travel is of great importance.

The purpose of this work is to study the most famous travelers of the ancient era.

Within the framework of the goal, the following tasks have been set:

.Examine the material on the research topic

.Expand the research topic based on the studied material.

1.Great travelers of antiquity

In its most general sense, the word "antique" means "ancient". But there is also a narrower and at the same time more widely accepted meaning: when they talk about antiquity, they mean belonging to the ancient Greek or ancient Roman culture (civilization), which have a long history: from the first centuries of the 1st millennium BC. and up to the 5th century A.D. Geographical knowledge of the Greeks and Romans was at a very high level. For modern historians of geography, it is extremely important that among all ancient civilizations, the ancient ones offer the most complete set of sources by which one can judge geographical knowledge as a real system, and not just a collection of disparate information.

1.1 Travelers of Ancient Greece

The epoch of antiquity includes several periods: the archaic period (Cretan-Mycenaean culture); the period of the beginning of the development of the civilization of Ancient Greece; Hellenistic period (the heyday and decline of the civilization of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome). The very word "antiquity" translated from Latin means "antiquity", "antiquity".

The Minoan culture, which emerged in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC on the island of Crete, reached its heyday by the 17th - 16th centuries. BC. During this time, the Cretan fleet dominated the Eastern Mediterranean. XIV - XII centuries BC. were the flowering of the Mycenaean culture. From Egyptian sources it is known that the Achaeans raided Egypt, Asia Minor and other countries. The Dorian tribes who came from the north became the cause of the death of the Mycenaean culture. Balkan Peninsula... They laid the foundations of the ancient Greek civilization. And the Cretan-Mycenaean culture disappeared. Only its fragments have survived to this day.

Since the XII century. BC. we can talk about the origin of the civilization of Ancient Greece. Moreover, from the XII to the VIII centuries. BC historians call the "dark period" of the development of this era. During this time, all memories of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture were erased. Neither Thucyditus, nor Herodotus, nor Aristotle even mention her in their writings. And only Homer in the 7th century. BC. in his poems he vaguely hinted at some mysterious culture of the past. Homer described the history of the Trojan War, which was fought in the 12th century. BC. Thanks to the discoveries of Heinrich Schliemann and Arthur Evans, mankind was surprised to discover that the siege of Ilion by the Achaean army led by the Mycenaean king Agamemnon is not the fruit of Homeric invention, but a real historical fact.

Greek scientists call Homer the "father of geography", who lived in the 9th-8th centuries. BC.

According to tradition, the first who introduced the Greeks to the poems of Homer was the Spartan king Lycurgus. Their recording and final editing were made in Athens by a special commission appointed by the tyrant Peisistratus (6th century BC). It was also established that they must be read to the whole people during the festivities in honor of the goddess Athena - Panathena. These works were included in all school curricula of numerous ancient Greek policies: city-states. Plato even expressed the following thought: "Homer brought up all of Greece." Dante Alighieri called Homer "the king of poets". The artistic culture of all subsequent eras, from antiquity to the present, is saturated with images of Homeric heroes.

The Iliad is dedicated to the Trojan War (c. 1200 BC), and The Odyssey tells about the return to his homeland after the end of this war of the king of Ithaca, Odysseus.

There is every reason to believe that the Odyssey describes real trip sailors in the Mediterranean and Black Seas.

There are many similarities in the wanderings of the Argonauts and Odysseus. They describe the well-known, but not yet fully studied oecumene, the outskirts of which are "inhabited" by all kinds of monsters and wizards. Therefore, only heroes like Jason, Odysseus can visit there (even having visited Hades, like the Argonaut Orpheus or Odysseus) and return to their homeland. Travels of this rank were perceived by the Greeks as heroic deeds.

In Ancient Greece, travel reached its greatest rise in the 5th - 4th centuries. BC. The same period is the flourishing of philosophy, art, mathematics, astronomy, cosmology and other sciences. The civilization centers were the cities of Asia Minor - Miletus, Ephesus and Colophon. But the center of attraction was Athens.

With the aim of knowing the world, sages, natural philosophers and poets went to all ends of the world. Almost all major ancient Greek philosophers made long journeys. The sage and philosopher Thales of Miletus studied in Egypt for over twenty years. The philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras, the legislator Solon, visited the Nile Valley in order to gain knowledge. The philosopher Plato, having made a long journey, on his return home, founded a philosophical school. Xenophanes of Colophon was an itinerant poet-rhapsodist.

But it was not only knowledge that attracted travelers to these countries. They were attracted by the grandiose ancient monuments of architecture. So ancient that Pythagoras, in comparison with them, is perceived as our contemporary. When visiting Egyptian monuments, travelers often left short notes on their walls - "graffiti", which means "scrawled" in Italian. Only at the tombs of the pharaohs in Thebes, the Egyptologist J. Bayeux discovered more than two thousand similar inscriptions dating back to the times of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

1.1.1 Herodotus

One of the first learned travelers was Herodotus, who, in the words of Cicero, is the "father of history". Herodotus was born about 484 BC in the Asia Minor city of Halicarnassus. He came from a wealthy and noble family with extensive trade connections. At a young age, due to political turmoil, he left his hometown and lived on the island of Samos. Disillusioned with politics, Herodotus began to take an interest in the history of his people and, above all, in mythology. Many researchers believe that it was the desire to visit the places where Hercules performed his exploits that prompted Herodotus to travel. Coming from a wealthy family, Herodotus did not feel the need for money.

He traveled all over Greece and Asia Minor, then sailed to the Phoenician city of Tire. Most of all, Herodotus was attracted by the East and its rich cultural heritage. Herodotus traveled to Libya, visited Babylon, but he was especially struck by Egypt, where he stayed for three months. In Egypt, he asked to translate the inscriptions for him, asking the priests about the history of this state. He was interested not only in the life of the pharaohs, but also visited the workshops of embalmers. He measured the length of the perimeter of the base of the pyramids in steps, making specific mathematical calculations. Returning to Greece, Herodotus shared his knowledge with his compatriots. This was his first trip.

The second journey of Herodotus passed through Asia Minor, from where he arrived by ship to the Northern Black Sea region, through Gelespont to the Milesian colony of Olbia at the mouth of the Dnieper-Bug estuary. There he met with the nomadic tribes of the Scythians, observed their customs, rituals, studied their social structure.

Herodotus devoted his third journey to the study of the Balkan Peninsula. He traveled around the Peloponnese, islands Aegean(Delos, Pharos, Zakif and others), then traveled around Southern Italy and the north of the Balkan Peninsula.

Herodotus traveled for 10 years (from 455 to 445 BC), and stated all his observations in 9 books, each of which was named after one of the muses. In his famous work "History" Herodotus described not only the history of many peoples, but also ethnographic signs, i.e. description of facial features, skin color, type of clothing, way of life, rituals, folk signs, general way of life, etc.

In the "History" of Herodotus, his personal observations, real information about distant countries, obtained in wanderings, are bizarrely combined with a retelling of mythological events. Herodotus is suspicious of stories about people with goats' legs or werewolves from the Neuro tribe, but he quite seriously describes the giant ants-gold miners from the Indian desert. Herodotus also did not believe the testimony of the Phoenicians, who circled the African continent, that during the voyage the sun turned out to be on their right side.

Despite the existing inaccuracies, it is difficult to overestimate the importance of the work of Herodotus. He collected many ancient ideas about the world, described the geography of many countries, the life of different peoples.

Only fragments of his works have come down to us, but the main thing is that Herodotus belongs to the glory of the first Greek tourist, since, unlike his predecessors, he wandered not for the sake of achieving some other goals, but for the sake of the journey itself, i.e. for pleasure, satisfaction of their own curiosity and curiosity.

Herodotus believed that the Etruscans, or, as the Greeks called them, Tyrrens or Tyrsens, came from the state of Lydia, located in Asia Minor, are the brightest example of a traveler people. The name of the legendary Etruscan prince Tirsen is preserved in the name of the Tyrrhenian Sea.

Having returned as a young man to his homeland, in Halicarnassus, the famous traveler took part in the popular movement against the tyrant Ligdamis and contributed to his overthrow. In 444 BC, Herodotus attended the Panathenaean festivals and read excerpts from his travels there, causing general delight. At the end of his life, he retired to Italy, to Turium, where he died around 425 BC, leaving behind the fame of a famous traveler and an even more famous historian.

traveler tourism geography regional studies

1.1.2 Pytheas

In the VII-VI centuries. BC e. Etruscan civilization reached its peak. By this time, she was compared in its influence on the sea with such great maritime powers as the Hellenic and Carthage.

During this era, travel was carried out mainly for economic, political and military purposes. One of the examples of travel for economic purposes was the travel of the Greek merchant Pytheas. The aggravation of the competition between the Greek city-states, on the one hand, and Phenicia and Carthage, on the other, for dominance in trade in the Western Mediterranean basin, which led to local military conflicts, and forced Pytheas to set off on his own in search of new Western European markets.

The Phoenicians did not allow foreign merchants to cross the Strait of Gibraltar, the movement through which was controlled by special garrisons located in Gadis (Cadiz) and Tingis (Tangier) on both sides of the strait. The Phoenicians were monopolists for such goods as tin, amber, a number of varieties of expensive furs, which they supplied to the Mediterranean countries from British isles and the Nordic countries.

In 325 (according to other sources in 320) BC. Pytheas sailed on one ship from his hometown of Messalia (now Marseille) to the Mediterranean Sea. He sailed through Gibraltar and, having rounded the Iberian Peninsula, entered the Bay of Biscay. Then he sailed along the coast of the country of the Celts and reached the English Channel. There he landed on the island of Albion, which means "White", named because of the frequent fogs. On this island Pytheas learned from the inhabitants that to the north of them lies the land "Tule", which in translation from the local dialect means "edge", "limit".

Pytheas skirted the British Peninsula from the west, and through the North Strait between Britain and Ireland entered Atlantic Ocean... Pytheas tried to reach the land of "Thule" (now the island of Iceland). He sailed the Orkney and Shetland Islands and, reaching the Ferrers, went further, to 61 ° north latitude. None of the ancient Greeks or even the Romans went so far north. But the further swimming of Pytheas was prevented by impenetrable fogs that form from hit northern ice into the warm Gulf Stream. Pytheas was forced to turn south towards the shores of the Scandinavian Peninsula.

Later, in his notes, Pytheas will call the land of Thule "the last limit", which in Latin sounds like "ultima tule".

But Pytheas's journey did not end there. Pytheas sailed to the east and arrived at the mouth of the Rhine, where the Ostions lived, and then the Germans. From there he sailed to the mouth of the Elbe and returned to Messalia.

Information about the travels of Pytheas is contradictory. Some ancient authors believe that Pytheas sailed further east on the way back, entered the Baltic Sea, and further along the Dniester descended into the Black Sea (Pontus Euxine) and through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles entered the Mediterranean Sea and returned home. However, many ancient Greek historians disbelieve such descriptions. But Pytheas' northern journey and his achievements are indisputable.

1.3 Eudoxus

The interests of the ancient Greeks were very diverse. They turned their gaze to all ends of the world. The primacy of Europeans in sailing to the shores of India belongs to the ancient Greeks. But, in fairness, I must say that the Greeks used the information they received from Egyptian travelers.

For example, the Greek navigator Eudoxus of Cyzikos, by order of Pharaoh Ptolemy III, undertook a voyage to the shores of India, sailing from Egypt, accompanied by an Indian guide. The sailors have successfully reached the desired goal.

The second expedition to India was made by Eudoxus on the instructions of Queen Cleopatra for a load of incense. But on the way back, the winds carried the ship south of Ethiopia, and Eudoxus was forced to move along the coast of Africa.

During his third voyage (120 - 115 BC), he sailed around Africa, as the Phoenicians did, but died at the end of the journey.

1.4 Alexander the Great

Considering the travels of the Hellenistic era, one cannot fail to note the military campaigns of Alexander the Great, which lasted for 10 years. In the ancient world, these campaigns were considered an unheard of, almost legendary feat. The fame of the brilliant military victories of the great Alexander was reflected in the folk legends of the entire Middle Ages.

In 330 BC. the troops of Alexander the Great, defeating the Persian kingdom, reached southern Afghanistan. Then, through modern Kandahar and Ghazni, they were poisoned to Kabkl. From there, passing the Khavak pass (3,548 m) in the Hindu Kush mountain range, we arrived in Northern Afghanistan. After that, the Macedonian king made his trip to the Syrdarya and reached modern Khujand (until 1991 - the city of Leninabad). Then the army turned south and invaded the Punjab, where, due to the discontent of the soldiers, the heat and illness, Alexander was forced to go back, during which he was overtaken by death.

Without going into the military details of this campaign, we can safely say that it ended for the Greeks, and then for the Romans, by opening the way to India. Thanks to this campaign, the Greeks and Macedonians got acquainted with little-known, if not completely unknown before, peoples, their culture, way of life, traditions. Alexander the Great was personally interested in the study of Asia. Alexander's entourage included not only warriors, but also outstanding scientists and artists. In their works, they described in detail everything they saw, heard and studied during this campaign.

This campaign laid the foundation for museology. Alexander, after defeating the Persians, sent money to his teacher Aristotle. With this money, Aristotle founded a natural science museum. Aristotle asked his royal pupil to send him samples of unknown plants and skins or stuffed animals of unusual animals, which was done at the behest of Alexander.

During the voyage of Nearchus, not only a map of the coast was drawn up, but also a study was carried out natural phenomena, in particular monsoon winds, expanded knowledge of botany and zoology. Nearchus got acquainted with many tribes and peoples, learned their customs and laws.

Thus, the campaign of Alexander the Great can also be considered a "scientific expedition", since the conqueror surrounded himself with natural scientists, mathematicians, historians, philosophers, botanists and artists.

1.1.5 Strabo

The geographical representations of Herodotus were expanded by the ancient Greek scientist and traveler Strabo, who was born in the 1st century BC. BC. in the southeastern part of the Asia Minor Peninsula. Strabo, coming from a noble and wealthy family, received an excellent education and was able to travel to various parts of the Roman Empire. He visited Italy, Asia Minor, Egypt, and Rome itself; in his distant wanderings, Strabo reached Armenia and the borders of Ethiopia.

As a result of these travels, he collected extensive historical and geographical material, which was later used in two major works: "Historical Notes" and "Geography", consisting of 17 books. The fates of these two works of Strabo are completely opposite: if the first is almost completely lost, then the second has come down to our days almost entirely and brought this scientist fame, which has already a thousand-year history.

"Geography" tells about Spain, Italy, Greece, India, Egypt, Central and Eastern Europe, Central, Central and Asia Minor. Strabo not only describes the nature and population, but also makes historical excursions, mentioning some facts that are not known to any other sources.

Geography Strabo considered part of philosophy, interpreting it from the standpoint of the stoic ideas of Posidonius. He considered Homer a completely reliable source geographic information... Strabo had no idea about mathematical geography, limiting himself to descriptive, hence his often unfair criticism of his predecessors, in particular Eratosthenes. Strabo's descriptions are accurate, and some to this day seem to be the main source of our knowledge, for example, descriptions of the Nile delta and Alexandria. Strabo also paid attention to the history, and in particular, the cultural history of the described countries. He addressed his writing to a wide circle of readers; in it he also expressed a kind of admiration for the power of Rome. According to Strabo, Earth was an island washed by the Ocean, which created 4 gulfs: the Caspian Sea, the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf. He was the first to express the idea of ​​the gradual dismemberment of the land. He divided the inhabited world into Europe, Asia and Libya, that is, Africa. "Geography" by Strabo is the largest geographical work that has come down to us from antiquity. Along with the work of Claudius Ptolemy, it is the source of our information about ancient geography. Strabo wrote simply and concisely, without rhetorical embellishments. The work of Strabo was little known until the 5th century. AD Then it became a classic work on geography, and Strabo was simply called the Geographer.

Ancient Greek culture has enriched humanity with knowledge about the world around it, raising travel to the rank of a mass phenomenon, but we can talk about the initial stages of the tourism industry since the era of Ancient Rome.

1.2 Travelers of Ancient Rome

2.1 Enei (mythology)

Travel was at the heart of the civilization of ancient Rome. The ancestor of Rome is considered one of the main defenders of Troy during the Trojan War - Aeneas. After the defeat, Aeneas was forced, saving his family, to flee from the city captured by the Achaeans.

Virgil dedicated the poem "Aeneid" to this journey. The path of Aeneas' small fleet lay across the Aegean Sea, then, circling the Peloponnese through the Adriatic Sea, the travelers arrived in Epirus, located on the western coast of the Balkans, from where they proceeded to Sicily. Suddenly, the oncoming storm threw their ships to the northern coast of Africa, and only the intervention of Neptune himself saved them from inevitable death.

In Carthage, Aeneas was struck by the love spell and hospitality of the dowager queen Dido. But the supreme god of the Romans, Jupiter, sent Mercury (later the patron saint of pilgrims) to Aeneas to remind him of the need to continue the journey.

Aeneas resumes his journey. The Trojans arrive on the Apennine Peninsula, where they initially stop at the city of Kuma, and then, after the prophetess Sibyl gave Aeneas an "excursion" to the Kingdom of the Dead, where the ghost of his deceased father told him about the future great destiny of Rome, they continue their journey, which ends at the banks of the Tiber. And five centuries later, Rome was founded there.

The Trojans faced many more trials. The local population - the Latins - start wars against them. And only the marriage of Aeneas with the daughter of the king of the Latins Lavinia ended this bloody conflict. But in order to appease the local gods, in particular Juno, they pledged to adopt the language and traditions of the Latins.

Emperor Octavian Augustus played an important role in editing and spreading the myth of Aeneas. This allowed the Roman aristocrats to trace their ancestry to the Trojans.

The history of the formation and spread of Christianity is directly related to the journey of both Jesus himself and his apostles.

2.2 Apostle Paul

The most prominent preacher of the new religion was the apostle Paul. He embraced the new faith after having a vision while traveling to Damascus in which Jesus spoke to him. Paul traveled extensively during his missionary work. He visited Asia Minor, Greece, Syria, Palestine. Paul returned to Jerusalem after three lengthy travels in eastern part Roman Empire, where he was arrested and sent to Rome. This was the last journey of the apostle: in 64 A.D. e. Paul was executed on the outskirts of Rome for his active missionary work and the development of Christian theology. The Christian faith in the Roman Empire was persecuted until the 4th century. n. e.

2.3 Pausanias

The first traveler of our era, whose name was preserved in history, was the Greek writer Pausanias. He lived in Rome and traveled extensively in the Greek and Roman provinces. Description of his travels, compiled in the form of a guide ("Description of Hellas"), he published in ten books around 180 AD. In particular, Pausanias described Attica (the southeastern part of central Greece) and Athens. From Attica, he moved on to Corinth and explored the islands of the Aegean Sea. He then gave a description of Laconia and Sparta, listing the names of all the roads and provinces.

2.4 Hippalus

The journey of the merchant Hippalus in 14 -37 years was of great importance for the development of trade. AD He set out from East Africa and reached the Indus Delta. He established the regularity of the movement of monsoons in the Indian Ocean, sailed from Cape Fartak to the Indus Delta. Hippalus wrote the book Sailing Around the Eritrean Sea. This essay describes the African coast from Cape Guardafui to the island of Zanzibar. Also described South coast Arabia and most of the west coast of India.

"Description of the journey through Pontus Euxine" (Black Sea) belongs to the pen of the Greek historian Arrian, who lived in the II century. n. e. In his work, Arrian tries to characterize the countries and peoples living along the shores of this sea. Truly encyclopedic works were "World History" by Polybius and "Geography" by Claudius Ptolemy.

Travelers were in Ancient rome apostles and emperors (Trajan, Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius), generals and scientists. The military campaigns of the Romans, such as Caesar to Gaul, Claudius to Britain, Scipio to Africa, led to the expansion of reliable geographical knowledge. The Romans build roads, lay fortresses, some of them will eventually become capitals European states: Singidunkum (Belgrade); Aquincum (Buda, later merged with the left-bank Pest); Vindobona (Vienna).

Even a philosophy of tourism is emerging. Lucius Annei Seneca in "Letters to Lucilius" substantiates the idea that for tourism it is necessary "to choose places that are healthy not only for the body, but also for morals." Because, says Seneca, "and the area, without a doubt, is not devoid of the ability to corrupt." As dens of all vices, he cites such famous resorts like Canopic and Bailly.

But at the same time, the philosopher asserts that "it is not the sky that needs to be changed, but the soul", because "everywhere you come, your vices will follow you." In support of this thesis, Seneca quotes the statement of Socrates: "Is it strange that you have no benefit from wandering if you carry yourself everywhere?" To get the maximum benefit and pleasure, you need to travel with pure soul- considered the ancient scientists.

Conclusion

Travelers of antiquity made a huge contribution both to the history of the development of tourism, geography and culture, regional studies, ethnography, various sciences and teachings, and world history generally.

Travelers throughout the history of mankind obtained important information that served as a valuable source of knowledge of various sciences. On the basis of the collected materials, scientists built up various concepts explaining the historical development of a particular country. They resorted to their help when they tried to prove or disprove any hypotheses and ideas.

Thus, thanks to the travelers of antiquity, new lands and peoples were discovered, and rich geographical material was accumulated, which contributed to further travel and discoveries.

List of used literature

1.M. V. Belkin, O. Plakhotskaya. Dictionary "Ancient Writers". Access mode:

Makarenko S.N., Sahak A.E. Tourism history. Access mode:

Sokolova M.V. History of Tourism: A Study Guide for Students of Higher Educational Institutions. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2006.

Encyclopedia for Children: Vol. 3 (Geography). - Comp. S.T. Ismailova. - M .: Avanta +, 1994.

The first collectors of information about the Earth were wars and traders: their profession simply forced them to travel. With the help of brave explorers, the ancient states expanded not only their territory, but also the circle of their knowledge about the world around them.

Exploring the fertile valley of the Lower Nile, the ancient Egyptians in the III-II millennium BC made trips to Libya, up the Nile and to the mysterious country of Punt. They also dared to sail along the coast of Africa. Around the same time, other ancient Sumerian travelers set off on sea expeditions around Arabia.

Achaean merchants from Mediterranean Sea went to Black and reached Colchis (the territory of modern Georgia). Perhaps their journey became the basis for the myths about the Argonauts. The Achaeans crossed the African continent by quicksand Sahara and reached the Niger River.

The Phoenicians were some of the best navigators of the past. In the XI century BC, their routes passed not only the Mediterranean, but also the Red Seas. The nimble Phoenician seafaring merchants managed to cross the seething Strait of Gibraltar, enter the Atlantic Ocean, sailing more than 1000 kilometers northward and reach England. Even more incredible are the voyages of the Phoenicians to the south: they circled Africa by sea, establishing trade relations with India.

The ancient Chinese expanded their domains from the Pacific coast to the Tibetan Highlands, explored the lower reaches of the Red River, and pushed deeper into the Indochina Peninsula. And in 138 BC, the Chinese emperor sent explorers to the west. Zhang Qiang, who headed this embassy, ​​returned only thirteen years later, having overcome about ten thousand kilometers through mountains and deserts Central Asia... His route was then followed by the Great Silk Road, which united the ancient peoples of the Old World.

Phoenician biremes, Chinese junks and Viking drakars were famous for their navigational qualities. The Phoenicians were the first to come up with a keel and strong ribs, the Chinese equipped their ships with hemp ropes and a rudder, and the noses of the long Viking sailboats were decorated with images of dragon heads - hence their name.

The discoverer of America is considered Christopher Columbus, who reached its shores in 1492. However, five centuries before him, the warlike ancestors of today's Norwegians (Vikings) had already crossed North Atlantic, have visited Greenland and the island of Newfoundland.

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Travel has always attracted people, but before it was not only interesting, but also extremely difficult. The territories were not explored, and, starting the journey, everyone became an explorer. Which travelers are the most famous and what exactly did each of them discover?

James Cook

The famous Englishman was one of the finest cartographers of the eighteenth century. He was born in the north of England and by the age of thirteen he began to work with his father. But the boy was unable to trade, so he decided to go sailing. In those days, everyone famous travelers the world went to distant countries on ships. James became interested in the sea business and so quickly moved up the career ladder that he was offered to become a captain. He refused and went to the Royal Navy. Already in 1757, the talented Cook began to manage the ship himself. His first achievement was the drawing up of the channel of the river. He discovered in himself the talent of a navigator and cartographer. In the 1760s, he explored Newfoundland, which attracted the attention of the Royal Society and the Admiralty. He was entrusted with a journey across the Pacific Ocean, where he reached the shores of New Zealand. In 1770, he accomplished what other famous travelers had not previously achieved - he discovered a new mainland. Cook returned to England in 1771 as the famous pioneer of Australia. His last journey was an expedition in search of a passage connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean s. Today even schoolchildren know the sad fate of Cook, who was killed by the natives-cannibals.

Christopher Columbus

Famous travelers and their discoveries have always had a significant impact on the course of history, but few are as famous as this man. Columbus became the national hero of Spain, drastically expanding the country's map. Christopher was born in 1451. The boy quickly achieved success as he was diligent and a good student. At the age of 14, he went to sea. In 1479, he met his love and began life in Portugal, but after the tragic death of his wife he went with his son to Spain. Having received the support of the Spanish king, he went on an expedition, the purpose of which was to find a way to Asia. Three ships sailed from the coast of Spain to the west. In October 1492, they reached Bahamas... This is how America was discovered. Christopher mistakenly decided to call the locals Indians, believing that he had reached India. His report changed history: two new continents and many islands, discovered by Columbus, became the main direction of travel of the colonialists in the next few centuries.

Vasco da Gama

Portugal's most famous traveler was born in Sines on September 29, 1460. From a young age he worked in the navy and became famous as a confident and fearless captain. In 1495, King Manuel came to power in Portugal, who dreamed of developing trade with India. For this, a sea route was needed, in search of which Vasco da Gama was to go. There were more than famous sailors and travelers, but for some reason the king chose him. In 1497, four ships sailed south, rounded and sailed to Mozambique. There I had to stop for a month - half of the team by that time was sick with scurvy. After a break, Vasco da Gama reached Calcutta. In India, he established trade relations for three months, and a year later returned to Portugal, where he became a national hero. The opening of the sea route, which made it possible to get to Calcutta by east coast Africa, has become his main achievement.

Nikolay Miklukho-Maclay

Famous Russian travelers also made many important discoveries. For example, the same Nikolai Mikhlukho-Maclay, who was born in 1864 in the Novgorod province. He could not graduate from St. Petersburg University, as he was expelled for participating in student demonstrations. To continue his education, Nikolai went to Germany, where he met Haeckel, a naturalist who invited Miklouho-Maclay to his scientific expedition. Thus, the world of wandering was opened for him. His whole life was devoted to travel and scientific work. Nicholas lived in Sicily, in Australia, studied New Guinea, embodying the project of the Russian Geographical Society, visited Indonesia, the Philippines, the Malacca Peninsula and Oceania. In 1886, the naturalist returned to Russia and proposed to the emperor to establish a Russian colony overseas. But the project with New Guinea did not receive royal support, and Miklouho-Maclay fell seriously ill and soon died without completing his work on a book about travels.

Fernand Magellan

Many famous sailors and travelers lived in the era of the Great Magellans is no exception. In 1480 he was born in Portugal, in the city of Sabroza. Going to serve at the court (at that time he was only 12 years old), he learned about the confrontation between his native country and Spain, about travel to the East Indies and trade routes. So he first became interested in the sea. In 1505, Fernand got on the ship. For seven years after that, he plowed the sea, participated in expeditions to India and Africa. In 1513 Magellan went to Morocco, where he was wounded in battle. But this did not temper the craving for travel - he planned an expedition for the spices. The king rejected his request, and Magellan went to Spain, where he received all the support he needed. Thus began his journey around the world. Fernand thought that the route to India from the west might be shorter. He crossed the Atlantic Ocean, reached South America and discovered the strait that would later be named after him. became the first European to see the Pacific Ocean. On it, he reached the Philippines and almost reached the goal - the Moluccas, but died in a battle with local tribes, wounded by a poisonous arrow. However, his journey opened up a new ocean to Europe and the understanding that the planet is much larger than scientists had previously thought.

Roald Amundsen

The Norwegian was born at the very end of an era in which many famous travelers became famous. Amundsen was the last of the seafarers to try to find undiscovered lands. From childhood, he was distinguished by perseverance and faith in his own strength, which allowed him to conquer the South Geographic Pole. The beginning of the journey is associated with 1893, when the boy left the university and got a job as a sailor. In 1896, he became a navigator, and the following year set off on his first expedition to Antarctica. The ship got lost in the ice, the crew was sick with scurvy, but Amundsen did not give up. He took command, healed the people, remembering his medical education, and brought the ship back to Europe. Becoming a captain, in 1903 he set out in search of the Northwest Passage off Canada. Famous travelers before him had never done anything like this - in two years the team covered the path from the east of the American mainland to its west. Amundsen became known all over the world. The next expedition was a two-month hike to the South Plus, and the last venture was the search for Nobile, during which he disappeared without a trace.

David Livingston

Many famous travelers are associated with sailing. he became an explorer of land, namely the African continent. The famous Scotsman was born in March 1813. At the age of 20, he decided to become a missionary, met Robert Moffett and wished to go to African villages. In 1841 he came to Kuruman, where he taught local residents conducting Agriculture, served as a doctor and taught literacy. There he also learned the Bechuan language, which helped him travel across Africa. Livingstone studied in detail the life and customs of local residents, wrote several books about them and went on an expedition in search of the sources of the Nile, in which he fell ill and died of a fever.

Amerigo Vespucci

The most famous travelers in the world were most often from Spain or Portugal. Amerigo Vespucci was born in Italy and became one of the famous Florentines. He received a good education and trained to be a financier. From 1490 he worked in Seville, in the Medici trade mission. His life was connected with sea ​​travel for example, he sponsored Columbus's second expedition. Christopher inspired him with the idea of ​​trying himself as a traveler, and already in 1499 Vespucci went to Suriname. The purpose of the voyage was to study coastline... There he opened a settlement called Venezuela - Little Venice. In 1500 he returned home with 200 slaves. In 1501 and 1503. Amerigo repeated his travels, acting not only as a navigator, but also as a cartographer. He discovered the bay of Rio de Janeiro, which he himself named. Since 1505, he served the king of Castile and did not participate in campaigns, only outfitted other people's expeditions.

Francis Drake

Many famous travelers and their discoveries have benefited mankind. But there are also those among them who left an unkind memory in themselves, since their names were associated with rather cruel events. The English Protestant, who sailed on a ship from the age of twelve, was no exception. He captured local residents in the Caribbean, selling them into slavery to the Spaniards, attacked ships and fought with Catholics. Perhaps no one could match Drake in the number of captured foreign ships. His campaigns were sponsored by the Queen of England. In 1577 he went to South America to destroy the Spanish settlements. During the trip, he found Tierra del Fuego and the strait, which was later named in his honor. Having rounded Argentina, Drake plundered the port of Valparaiso and two Spanish ships. When he reached California, he met the natives, who presented the English gifts of tobacco and bird feathers. Drake crossed Indian Ocean and returned to Plymouth, becoming the first British person to travel around the world. He was admitted to the House of Commons and awarded the title of Sir. In 1595 he died in the last campaign in the Caribbean.

Afanasy Nikitin

Few famous travelers of Russia have achieved the same heights as this native of Tver. Afanasy Nikitin became the first European to visit India. He made a trip to the Portuguese colonialists and wrote "Voyage across the Three Seas" - the most valuable literary and historical monument. The success of the expedition was ensured by the career of a merchant: Afanasy knew several languages ​​and knew how to negotiate with people. On his journey, he visited Baku, lived in Persia for about two years and reached India by ship. Having visited several cities of an exotic country, he went to Parvat, where he stayed for a year and a half. After the province of Raichur, he headed to Russia, laying a route through the Arabian and Somali peninsulas. However, Afanasy Nikitin never made it home, because he fell ill and died near Smolensk, but his notes were preserved and ensured world fame for the merchant.

Answers to tasks 1–24 are a word, phrase, number or sequence of words, numbers. Write your answer to the right of the assignment number without spaces, commas, or other additional characters.

Read the text and complete assignments 1-3.

(1) Scientists and travelers of Antiquity were attracted by distant countries no less than our contemporaries. (2) _____ did not wander idly then, there were no tourists familiar to our time. (3) Greeks and Romans set out on a journey to make a pilgrimage to holy places, take part in sports, enter training; merchants strove to trade in distant countries, and military leaders and soldiers - to conquer new lands.

1

Which of the following sentences correctly conveyed the MAIN information contained in the text?

1. Ancient merchants strove to trade in distant countries, and military leaders and soldiers - to conquer new lands.

2. Travelers of Antiquity set off on a journey to make a pilgrimage to holy places.

3. Ancient Greek and Roman travelers were attracted to distant countries not by idle wanderings, but by the opportunity to take part in sports, trade, and conquer new lands.

4. In ancient times, there were no tourists familiar to our time.

5. The opportunity to take part in sports competitions, to conquer new lands, to trade, and not by idle wanderings, attracted distant countries of ancient Greek and Roman travelers.

2

Which of the following words (word combinations) should be in place of the gap in the second (2) sentence of the text? Write down this word (combination of words).

1. Since

3. Fortunately

4. It seems

5. Apparently

3

Read the fragment of the dictionary entry, which gives the meanings of the word EARTH. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in the third (3) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.

EARTH I AM, -and, wine. s e mlu, pl. s e mli, earth e eh, h e blah,

1. (in the terminological meaning 3 capital). The third planet from the Sun in the Solar System, revolving around the Sun and around its axis. 3. - the planet of people.

2. Dry as opposed to water or airspace... We saw land on the ship. Big z. (mainland or mainland coast in the speech of sailors, inhabitants of the island).

3. Soil, the top layer of our planet's crust, the surface. Land cultivation. Sit on the ground. Get (get) something from the ground.

4. Loose dark brown matter, which is part of the crust of our planet. 3.with sand and clay.

5. Country, state, as well as some kind of n. large area of ​​the Earth (high). Native z. Russian z. Alien lands.

6. Territory with land, located in someone else's. possession, use. Land ownership. Land lease.

4

In one of the words below, a mistake was made in the formulation of stress: the letter denoting a stressed vowel sound is WRONGLY highlighted. Write this word down.

deepen

dowry

5

One of the sentences below uses the highlighted word WRONG. Correct the lexical error by matching the highlighted word with a paronym. Write down the chosen word.

1. All the way they talked about LIVING little things.

2. The coniferous mossy forest CLOTHES all mountains and reaches right up to the seashore.

3. Our natures are so pure, so soft, so AESTHETIC that they shrink painfully at every somewhat rough touch.

4. Lily Kedrova's ARTISTIC career reached its peak at the end of her life.

5. Kazakevich in LAKOVY boots, instantly soaked, slowly walked behind Bokov, waving his hands away from the wet branches, and striving to hit him in the face.

6

In one of the words highlighted below, a mistake was made in the formation of the word form. Correct the mistake and spell the word correctly.

returns FROM CHAMPIONSHIP

DELICIOUS fruit

FIVE Lambs

TEA plantations

kilogram of WAFFLES

7

Establish a correspondence between the sentences and the grammatical errors made in them: for each position of the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Write down the answer in numbers without spaces or other signs.

8

Identify the word missing the unstressed verifiable vowel of the root. Write this word by inserting the missing letter.

in..negret

offer

hv .. pissed off

b..ruse

spreading

9

Define a row in which the same letter is missing in both words in the prefix. Write these words by inserting the missing letter.

and ... chasing, ra ... to draw

ave ... grandma, s ... pity

pr ... image, pr ... funny

and ... fullness, be ... literate

pre ... package, oh ... guess

10

Write down a word in which a letter is written at the place of the pass Yo.

cake ... to

separating ... wka

brocade ...

11

Write down the word in which the letter E is written at the place of the pass.

sealed ... lice

invisible

offended ... lice

moving ... my

12

Define a sentence in which NOT with a word is written LITTLE. Expand the parentheses and write out this word.

1. Someone fussed, shouted that it was necessary immediately, right there, (NOT) LEAVING from the place, to draw up some kind of collective telegram.

2. In the hallway, (NOT) LIGHTED by a light bulb, a bicycle without tires was hanging from the ceiling on the wall.

3. One moonbeam, seeping through the dusty, (NOT) WIPE window for years, sparingly illuminated the corner where the forgotten icon hung in the dust and cobwebs.

4. On the door of room number 2 was written something (NOT) AT ALL clear: "One-day creative trip".

5. The next door bore a short, but already completely (NOT) UNDERSTANDING inscription: "Perelygino".

13

Define a sentence in which both highlighted words are spelled LITTLE. Expand the brackets and write out these two words.

1. (B) FOR many days continued violent eruption a volcano, clouds of fire over which swirled (ON) LIKE a vortex, increasing in size.

2. (BY) the way this person behaves, it is clear that he (IN) is used to EVERYTHING to be the first.

3. Lake White (FROM) THAT is and charming that (IN) CIRCLE of it - dense varied vegetation.

4. It is difficult even to imagine WHAT (WOULD) happened to me IF (WOULD) the steamer was late.

5. (ON) THAT was how LN was silent with concentration. Tolstoy, his relatives could guess, (ON) HOW hard is his brain working now.

6. Petya shuddered, (FROM) THAT the doorbell rang, mother THAT (SAME) did not expect the call.

14

Indicate all the numbers in the place of which НН is written.

On the glass (1) suspended shelves of cabinets, inlaid (2) with mother-of-pearl, candlelight (3) decorated with lamps (4) silver decorations.

15

Arrange punctuation marks. Indicate the numbers of sentences in which you need to put ONE comma.

1. The works of IK Aivazovsky enjoyed great success both among artists and among ordinary viewers.

2. Autumn walks through the forest and hangs crystal cobwebs on bushes and grasses.

3. Once the Swan, Cancer and the Pike, they took a cart with their luggage.

4. I am trying to compare dozens of colors and shades and cannot find successful comparisons.

5. In the spring, PI Tchaikovsky rejoiced in the sun and the warmth of the first green grass.

16

After a little thought (1) Ostap put on the parapet (2) protecting the highway from the seething abyss of the Terek (3) stocks of sausages bought in Vladikavkaz (4) and began to climb the rock.

17

Arrange punctuation marks: include all numbers, which should be replaced by commas in sentences.

Spring (1), according to experts (2), will be long and cool, while summer (3), on the contrary (4), will be dry and hot.

18

Arrange punctuation marks: include all numbers, in their place in the sentence must be commas.

The whole point was in the atmosphere of the fairy tale (1) into which I plunged (2) and (3) which immediately awakened good (4) and bright feelings in my soul.

19

Arrange punctuation marks: include all numbers, in their place in the sentence must be commas.

These places have great fishing (1) and (2) if you have free time (3) then you can spend it by the river (4) which is just teeming with fish.

20

Edit the sentence: correct the lexical error by replacing the misspelled word. Write down the selected word, observing the norms of the modern Russian literary language.

The regulations require that the driver's movements be restricted by a safety strap.

Read the text and complete assignments 21-26.

(4) The author recalls how he was struck on a plane flying across the ocean in the United States by a woman who was sitting next to him and knitting a sweater. (5) The needles clinked in her hands. (6) The noose clung to the noose ... (7) The ancient, unchanging time of our grandmothers flowed inside the intercontinental time. (8) Chickens squeaked sleepily on the stove, a lamp was shining, it smelled of bread, everything was like in childhood, in the village of Koshkino. (9) And under the wing of the Boeing the Azores rushed by ... (10) The author also recalls the war, the tank triplex, the crosshair of the sight - and the time that suddenly ended. (11) It obviously stopped with the heart - the shooting stopped, the sound of the engine cut off, the crosshair of the sight trembled in a hot pause and a German self-propelled gun was advancing ...

(12) Thus, time goes slower, sometimes faster, sometimes it stops, freezes. (13) There are moments when the course of Time feels inflamed, acutely, it rushes at such a speed that you just gasp, you didn’t have time to look back, and the day has failed somewhere, and you again stand in front of the mirror, shave, and sometimes it torments you with its slowness, viscous slowness. (14) Suddenly it begins to drag on, the minutes are drawn by an endless thread. (15) What does it depend on? (16) Saturation? (17) But is there a connection? (18) When you do not notice the time - when there is a lot to do or when you are resting? (19) A day filled with work can also flash by, or it can wear down the soul with slowness ... (20) No, it happens here in every way, and somehow it is not entirely clear what the speed of time depends on, what drives it, and what it slows down ...

(21) Business people, organized people claim that they are the masters of Time. (22) The growing cult of Time is becoming an indicator of business acumen and the ability to live. (23) The hour hands are urging on, and the person rushes, fearing to be left behind. (24) He must be up to date, at the level, correspond. (25) He serves Time as a pagan god, sacrificing his freedom. (26) Not the time is scheduled, but the person is scheduled. (27) Time is commanding. (28) The Hounds of Time are racing at their heels. (29) Each person can be thought of as a consumer of time. (Z0) He processes time for different thoughts, feelings, work. (31) And although a small part is processed, and everything else disappears, it is still generally accepted that there is not enough time, it is not enough. (32) The author is convinced that the problem of a reasonable, human treatment of Time is becoming more and more urgent. (ЗЗ) This is not just a saving technique, this problem helps a person understand the meaning of his activities. (34) Time is a national wealth, the same as mineral resources, forests, lakes. (35) It can be used wisely and it can be destroyed. (З6) It's so easy to blab it out, to oversleep, to spend on fruitless expectations, on the pursuit of fashion, on drinks, but you never know. (37) Sooner or later, our schools will start teaching children about "time use." (38) The author is convinced that from childhood it is necessary to cultivate love for nature and love for Time. (39) And teach how to save Time, how to find it, how to get it.

In the 6th century BC, the ancient people of the Phoenicians lived in the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea on the islands and on the coast of the mainland.

Phenicia and its trading colonies are marked in red

Phoenicians at that time were the best builders, merchants and navigators.

Phoenician merchant ship

In search of new markets, they went on long journeys.

On their lands, they fished, made wine, scarlet fabric from shells - purple, as well as beautiful colored glass, and then all this was sold to other peoples

Instead, they took tin from the British, horses from the Scythians, grain from the Greeks.

In 600 BC. egyptian pharaoh Necho II entrusted the Phoenicians with the task of finding out the real size of Libya - the ancient name of Africa

The journey lasted 3 long years, information about it has come down to our days through mention in the writings Herodotus - ancient Greek scientist

Herodotus - an ancient Greek scientist who left a noticeable mark in many sciences, but especially in history and geography

Herodotus was born in 484 BC. in the ancient city Halicarnassus , in a wealthy and influential family. In his youth, he was involved in politics, but then suddenly dropped everything and began to travel

Another important journey of Herodotus was a journey through ancient Egypt.

During the journey, he rises high along the Nile River, leaves the country of Egypt and is the first to explore the territory previously unknown.

In all his travels, he describes in detail not only animals and vegetable world but also peoples, their culture, life, religion ... After himself, he leaves a huge multivolume work for thousands of pages, which is called "History" and also a map the ancient world which was called at that time oecumene

Map of Herodotus

Along with the Phoenicians in antiquity, there were other peoples who were experts in navigation and trade - the Greeks. The name of one of them has survived to this day, his name was Pytheas

He was born approximately in 380 in Greek city- Massalia. Today it french city Marseilles

Pytheas' journey began in 325 BC. e. The expedition left Massilia on two pentecanters. Her route was to the Strait of Gibraltar, occupied at that time by the Carthaginians. Gibraltar was completely closed by them from the passage of foreign ships. However, at night, Pytheas, under cover of darkness, managed to slip past the guards and go out into Atlantic Ocean .

Greek pentecanthor - fifty-oar military merchant ship

After a few weeks he reached Corbilon, ancient city inhabited by the Celts, he learned from them that they were buying tin in Britain and decided to sail there. Tin in ancient times was highly valued, an alloy of tin and copper gives a more durable bronze, iron in those days was practically unknown.

city ​​of Corbilon

Pytheas was well received in Britain or Albion, another name for these islands. He loaded 1 ship with tin and sent it back, asking the local people about the amber, he sailed on the remaining ship across the North Sea

Albus - means white by the ancient Romans and Greeks

The southern coast of Britain is steep, rocky and composed of ordinary chalk, due to the bright white color Britain is still often called the "foggy albion"

Traveling through the North Sea, Pytheas reached the island of Thule ( West Coast Norway) but was afraid to swim further, as he was afraid of large cold jellyfish and giant sea monsters

What do you think the giant sea monsters were?

Norway winter coast

Pytheas turned back, reached the British Isles again and sailed west to the Baltic Sea, where he calmly carried out an exchange trade with local tribes, bought a lot amber and came back. And although at first they did not believe him, we all know ...

Amber - fossilized ancient resin